Measures Of Trait Anxiety Research Articles

The association between trait anxiety and the fear of being laughed at in college: A preliminary study with a Brazilian sample.

To evaluate how gelotophobia correlates with trait anxiety in a sample of Brazilian college students. We evaluated the association of GELOPH < 15 > scores with both self-reported experiences of bullying victimization and trait anxiety measures assessed by the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). The study consisted of a sample of 65 adult volunteers (M = 21.48, SD = 2.54 years, 38 females), recruited through social media or flyer distribution, and submitted to online versions of the gelotophobia assessment instrument (GELOPH < 15 >) and the STAI. Most participants (N = 56, 86.15%) had an STAI-T score indicative of high trait anxiety. The average GELOPH < 15 > score of the sample was 2.69 (0.65) and 39 of the subjects (60%) were considered gelotophobes. There was a strong positive correlation between the GELOPH < 15 > and STAI-T scores but no correlation between bullying and either the STAI-T and GELOPH < 15 > scores. However, the great majority of subjects with gelotophobia reported been previously bullied. In our sample, all gelotophobes had trait anxiety, but only a fraction of anxious subjects had gelotophobia. These preliminary findings expand on previous reports underscoring the high prevalence of mental health problems afflicting higher education students in Brazil.

The Relations of Attention to and Clarity of Feelings With Facial Affect Perception.

Attention to emotions and emotional clarity are core dimensions of individual differences in emotion awareness. Findings from prior research based on self-report indicate that attention to and recognition of one’s own emotions are related to attention to and recognition of other people’s emotions. In the present experimental study, we examined the relations of attention to and clarity of emotions with the efficiency of facial affect perception. Moreover, it was explored whether attention to and clarity of emotions are linked to negative interpretations of facial expressions. A perception of facial expressions (PFE) task based on schematic faces with neutral, ambiguous, or unambiguous emotional expressions and a gender decision task were administered to healthy individuals along with measures of emotion awareness, state and trait anxiety, depression, and verbal intelligence. Participants had to decide how much the faces express six basic affects. Evaluative ratings and decision latencies were analyzed. Attention to feelings was negatively correlated with evaluative decision latency, whereas clarity of feelings was not related to decision latency in the PFE task. Attention to feelings was positively correlated with the perception of negative affects in ambiguous faces. Attention to feelings and emotional clarity were not related to gender decision latency. According to our results, dispositional attention to feelings goes along with an enhanced efficiency of facial affect perception. Habitually paying attention to one’s own emotions may facilitate processing of external emotional information. Preliminary evidence was obtained suggesting a relationship of dispositional attention to feelings with negative interpretations of facial expressions.

Daily interpersonal conflicts and daily exposure to bullying behaviors at work: The moderating roles of trait anger and trait anxiety

AbstractBuilding on the three‐way model of workplace bullying and its underlying theories, this study investigates the role of trait anger and trait anxiety in the link between daily interpersonal conflicts and daily exposure to bullying behaviors. Using a quantitative diary study design, we approached 57 military naval cadets participating in a tall‐ship voyage across the Atlantic, from Europe to North America, in 2017. They responded to a questionnaire on a daily basis over a period of 30 days—yielding 1428 measurement points. Prior to the voyage, participants also responded to a general questionnaire including measures of trait anger and trait anxiety. As hypothesized, multilevel analyses showed positive main effects of daily interpersonal conflicts on interpersonal conflicts the next day and exposure to bullying behaviors the same day. However, daily involvement in interpersonal conflicts did not predict exposure to bullying behaviors the next day. Moreover, and in support of the hypothesized moderating effects, trait anger (but not trait anxiety) interacted positively with daily interpersonal conflicts in the prediction of interpersonal conflicts the next day as well as exposure to bullying behaviors the same day. The study suggests that interpersonal conflicts persist and have an immediate effect on exposure to bullying behaviors and that this is particularly the case for individuals high (vs. low) on trait anger. We discuss how these findings contribute to the three‐way model of workplace bullying, as well as possible practical implications.

0648 Decreased Slow-Wave Sleep May Exacerbate Anxiety in Individuals with Low Anxiety

Abstract Introduction Evidence suggests that individuals with generalized anxiety disorder exhibit decreases in slow-wave sleep (SWS). Because SWS has been shown to be modifiable, it is imperative to better understand the relationship between symptoms of anxiety and amount of SWS to inform treatment development. This study aimed to explore the relationship between anxiety and SWS, and to investigate the impact of slow-wave sleep disruption on state anxiety. Methods Twenty-seven participants’ (mean age 30.9) were recruited as part of an ongoing study examining the relationship between SWS and depression. Participants spent two nights in the laboratory: baseline (BL) and slow-wave disruption (SWD), where SWS was disrupted using auditory stimulation. Anxiety was measured using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Both trait and state anxiety (BL, SWD) measures were collected. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to determine the impact of SWD on state anxiety. Results Participants’ trait anxiety scores were significantly correlated with percent N3, such that greater anxiety was associated with less N3 (r = -0.43; p<0.05). Individuals were then categorized as either high-anxiety (HA) or low-anxiety (LA) by median split (M=46.5). Results of the repeated measures showed a significant main effect of group (F=43.963; p<0.001), with HA individuals showing greater state anxiety than LA individuals. A significant interaction of group*condition was also found (F(1,24)=4.703; p=0.40). LA participants showed a significant increase in state anxiety following SWD (t=-2.539; p=0.028), while HA participants showed no change. Conclusion The current findings replicate previous research showing that anxious individuals have a reduced amount of SWS and demonstrate that decreases in SWS may exacerbate anxiety in individuals with low anxiety. Further, this work suggests that individuals with high anxiety may be more resilient to changes in anxiety state than individuals with low anxiety when SWS is reduced. Support (If Any) Goldschmied: K23MH118580 (NIMH)

An Investigation into the Relationship Between Musical Imagery and Anxiety

Imagining music in the mind's ear is common in everyday life and is characterised by individual differences in who is likely to experience involuntary musical imagery. Research has explored the relationship between musical imagery and mental health (e.g., obsessive compulsive disorder); however, little is known about the relationship between anxiety and musical imagery. The current study investigated the associations between these two variables. 432 participants completed a cross-sectional, online survey, measuring trait anxiety, depression, musical imagery experience, the controllability of unwanted thoughts, and aspects of sleep. Positive associations were found between trait anxiety and the frequency, negative valence and perceived helpfulness of involuntary musical imagery, and the amount of music imagined whilst trying to sleep. Trait anxiety did not correlate with the controllability of auditory imagery. These findings provide a clearer understanding of musical imagery's relationship with anxiety and have implications for using voluntary musical imagery to reduce anxiety.

Effects of anxiety level on directed forgetting of emotional information and related metacognitive judgments

The present study investigated intentional forgetting of emotional information in low vs. high anxiety groups, by using a directed forgetting paradigm. The groups were formed based on their scores on measures of state and trait anxiety. Participants were provided with positive, negative, and neutral photographs with either remember or forget instructions and further provided metacognitive judgments of learning for each photograph, indicating how likely they are to recognize the photograph in a subsequent recognition test. In the recognition test, they identified the photographs that they had seen in the learning session, irrespective of instruction. The results showed that directed forgetting was only observed in the high anxiety group. Furthermore, higher anxiety scores negatively correlated with the recognition of negative to-be-forgotten information, indicating that high anxiety is associated with a better ability to forget negative information. Metacognitive judgments showed awareness of the forget instructions and the valence of the photographs, but they were not affected by anxiety level. The results suggest that the effects of anxiety on cognitive control may be different between participants with higher vs. lower anxiety levels in a non-clinical sample. The results are discussed within several theoretical frameworks which claim that anxiety may lead to the inhibition and avoidance of negatively valenced mental content.

Psychometric properties of the Satisfaction with Life Scale in a Cypriot student sample

Subjective well-being has been researched across multiple studies to identify how different people define happiness and satisfaction in their lives. Life satisfaction, a key component of subjective well-being, has been used on its own as a global judgment of an individual’s subjective level of satisfaction with life. The Satisfaction with Life scale (SWLS) allows people to express their perceptions about 5 simple statements. This study aimed to assess the psychometric properties of the Greek version of the scale in a Cypriot sample of 341 university students. Psychometric analysis revealed that the data fit well in a unidimensional factor model in a confirmatory factor analysis, with adequate reliability indices of McDonald’s ω and Cronbach’s α =.86, and test-retest reliability of Pearson r = .85. SWLS scores had negative correlation coefficients with scores from trait anxiety, perceived stress, neuroticism, behavioral inhibition and depression measures, and moderate to strong positive correlations with scores from optimism and self-esteem measures; they were weakly positively associated with social desirability and uncorrelated with need for cognition scores. Overall, the SWLS scale had satisfactory psychometric properties in terms of reliability, factorial, convergent and discriminant validity and can be used with a Greek-speaking student population.

Reproduced correlations between integrity of white matter tracts and self-reported anxiety

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) allows us to evaluate the structural properties of white matter tracts which are associated with trait anxiety. However, in recent DTI studies of anxiety, research was focused mainly on selected white matter tracts, e.g. the uncinate fasciculus. At the same time, whole-brain structural connectivity has been rarely investigated in non-clinical populations. The present study aimed to explore correlations between white matter tract characteristics evaluated with the generalized fractional anisotropy (GFA) measure and state and trait anxiety inventory (STAI) scores at the whole-brain scale using the connectometry approach. In addition, we conducted psychological testing twice and examined the within-study reproducibility of these correlations. The results indicate reproduced correlations between both trait and state anxiety scores and GFA in the corpus callosum and association fibers predominantly in the right hemisphere, including the inferior, superior, and inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, and cingulum bundle. The associations with state anxiety are the same as with trait anxiety except for the negative one with GFA in the left cingulum. The findings point to the role of the integrity of these white matter tracts in susceptibility to high trait and state anxiety. The defined local connectome correlations with anxiety ratings could serve as targets for anxiety disorders preventive diagnostics.

Assessment-related anxiety among older adults: associations with neuropsychological test performance

ABSTRACT Anxiety disrupts test performance across academic/testing contexts; however, the impact of anxiety on neuropsychological testing has been examined less frequently among older adults, despite clinical observations of high anxiety and dementia worry among elderly individuals in assessment contexts. The present study examined the impact of trait, state, and test anxiety on measures of processing speed, working memory, verbal memory, and aspects of executive functioning (i.e., set shifting and inhibition). We hypothesized that anxiety specific to neuropsychological assessment would correlate with test performance more consistently than state or trait anxiety. Ninety-three older adults aged 55 to 89 underwent a three-and-a-half-hour comprehensive assessment battery measuring anxiety and neuropsychological test performance. All participants completed the Feelings About Neuropsychological Testing State (FANT-S) and Test (FANT-T) questionnaires, Generalized Anxiety Disorder-seven item (GAD-7), and neuropsychological tests in the domains of processing speed, working memory, verbal memory, and executive functioning. When test scores were regressed on these anxiety measures, increases in test anxiety predicted decreased performance on measures of executive functioning, specifically inhibitory control. State anxiety demonstrated the opposite relationship to performance and predicted increased performance on one measure. Trait anxiety did not predict cognitive assessment performance. Findings were consistent with previous research indicating measures of test anxiety are more sensitive to changes in test performance than measures of trait or state anxiety. Results demonstrated that older adults, even those not referred for a clinical neuropsychological assessment, can show decreased test performance when self-reported anxiety relevant to the neuropsychological assessment context is high.

Testing the Associations Between State and Trait Anxiety, Anger, Sadness, and Ambulatory Blood Pressure and Whether Race Impacts These Relationships.

Anxiety, anger, and sadness are related to elevated ambulatory blood pressure (ABP), yet it is unclear whether each emotion exerts unique effects. Moreover, an understanding of who might be most susceptible to the negative effects of these emotions is limited, with the trait tendency to experience them or one's race as potential moderators. The study examined the potential for differential effects of momentary anxiety, anger, and sadness on ABP. The study assessed whether a trait tendency to experience these negative emotions and/or race (Black vs. non-Black) would moderate these relationships. Participants (n = 153) completed trait anxiety, anger, and depressive symptoms measures at baseline. ABP was collected over two 24-hour periods 3-4 months apart. Momentary measures of anxiety, anger, and sadness were assessed via ecological momentary assessment (EMA) after each ABP reading. Momentary anxiety consistently predicted diastolic blood pressure but not systolic blood pressure. Momentary anger and sadness did not predict blood pressure (BP). Conditional effects were found with momentary anxiety and anger predicting elevated BP in those individuals with trait anxiety/anger at its mean. Trait anxiety and depression consistently predicted heightened BP in Black participants. Trait anger did not moderate the relationships between negative emotions and ABP. Findings suggest that momentary anxiety and anger should be given attention as potential risk factors for hypertension and highlight the unique perspective of EMA methods. Black participants who were more anxious and depressed experienced heightened BP, with anxiety and depression providing possible intervention targets in improving racial disparities in cardiovascular health.

The effect of a mindfulness‐based versus health self‐management intervention on cognitive performance in older adults with subjective cognitive decline (SCD): The SCD‐Well randomized controlled trial

AbstractBackgroundSubjective cognitive decline (SCD) denotes self‐reported cognitive concerns in the absence of objective cognitive impairment. Individuals with SCD convert to dementia at twice the annual rate of healthy controls, with relatively poorer cognition in SCD conferring additional risk. Non‐pharmacological interventions are currently undergoing intensive evaluation for promoting cognitive function in SCD.MethodThis study utilized data from the SCD‐Well randomized controlled trial. One hundred forty‐seven older adults with SCD, recruited from clinics in four European countries, were randomized to one of two 8‐week non‐pharmacological interventions: the Caring Mindfulness‐Based Approach for Seniors (CMBAS), or a Health Self‐Management Program (HSMP). Participants’ objective cognitive performance was assessed at baseline, post‐intervention, and 24‐weeks follow‐up using a battery of tests. Four of these (RAVLT, WAIS‐IV Coding, Mattis DRS‐2 and Category Fluency) were combined to yield an abridged version of the Preclinical Alzheimer’s Cognitive Composite 5 (PACC5Abridged). Linear mixed models estimated the change in outcome measures (the PACC5Abridged and its constituents) within and between arms. All models were adjusted for country and participant demographics (sex, age, and education), as well as the time‐varying effect of participants’ repeated practice with the outcome measures.ResultThere was a statistically significant improvement in the PACC5Abridged in both arms of the trial (p<.001), which did not differ between groups. The mean change in PACC5Abridged from baseline to 24‐weeks was 0.28 for CMBAS, and 0.22 for HSMP (pooled baseline SD 0.72). The effect of participants’ repeated practice on the PACC5Abridged was non‐significant, ruling out retest effects as a substantive explanation for results. Amongst the PACC5Abridged constituent tests, significant improvement was observed in the RAVLT and WAIS‐IV Coding.ConclusionThis clinical trial evaluated the effect of two 8‐week non‐pharmacological interventions on objective cognitive performance in SCD. Scores on a composite measure of early Alzheimer’s disease related cognitive dysfunction improved in both arms, even after accounting for practice effects. These results paralleled those of the primary outcome measure (trait anxiety), for which scores also improved in both arms. This work adds to the growing body of evidence that non‐pharmacological interventions can impact cognition in individuals at increased risk of dementia.

Smartphones and psychosocial development: Self-compassion mediates the association between trait anxiety and smartphone attachment in digital natives but not digital immigrants

ABSTRACT Cyberpsychological research suggests that interaction with and use of smartphones influences personal wellbeing and psychosocial development. Studies indicate that (a) the ways in which individuals manage their attachment to devices influences personal development, (b) greater smartphone attachment is associated with higher anxiety levels, and (c) personality differences might mediate this association. We investigated whether self-compassion (i.e. being kind and non-judgmental to oneself) might be such a mediating factor, and whether this mediational relationship differed between digital natives (n = 104, 18–25 years) and digital immigrants (n = 117, 30–60 years). Participants completed standardised scales measuring trait anxiety, self-compassion, and smartphone attachment/use. The mediational hypothesis was confirmed for digital natives only, suggesting that among these participants (who reported significantly higher anxiety levels) higher levels of self-compassion can provide a healthy buffer between psychological distress and unhealthy smartphone attachment. We conclude that programmatic self-compassion interventions could buffer negative developmental consequences of unhealthy smartphone attachment.

Generalizability theory distinguishes between state and trait anxiety.

Accurate distinction between state and trait anxiety is necessary for assessment and monitoring of individual anxiety levels over time and developing effective interventions to reduce anxiety. Generalizability theory (G-theory) is a suitable method to distinguish between state and trait and to evaluate reliability of test scores and sources of measurement error in the assessment of affective conditions. We applied G-theory to the widely used 40-item State and Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) completed by 139 participants on three occasions separated by 2-week intervals. The results show that both subscales of the STAI demonstrated excellent reliability for test scores in measuring trait anxiety with high generalizability of scores across occasions and persons (G = 0.84-0.92). The most dynamic aspects of state anxiety were identified in both subscales including satisfaction, nervousness, feelings of pleasure, perceived failure, calmness, feeling inadequate, and sensitivity to disappointments and this informed the development of a more sensitive state anxiety scale presented here. The STAI trait subscale and the proposed sensitive state subscale can be used to more accurately distinguish between state and trait anxiety. The most dynamic aspects of anxiety identified using G-theory are more amenable and need to be considered as the primary target of interventions aiming at reducing anxiety. More comprehensive assessment of state anxiety may benefit from the development of a longer scale informed by G-theory. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Changing Minds: A Pilot Feasibility Study of Mindfulness Training for At-Risk Adolescents

Youth at risk for negative health outcomes due to reduced access to social, mental health, and educational support systems are in particular need of resources promoting social-emotional resilience and positive educational outcomes. A growing body of research documents the positive benefits of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs), but few studies have examined the impact of MBIs for at-risk adolescents, particularly in school settings where barriers to access can be minimized. This pilot feasibility study examined the effects of a nine-week school-based MBI, augmented by cross-course curricular material, in a group of high school students attending a transfer school, designed to re-engage students who have dropped out or fallen behind in credits (N = 63). Pre- and post- MBI, students completed self-report measures of attention control, trait anxiety, coping, and emotion regulation, and attendance and academic achievement records were obtained from the school. Findings showed that the MBI promoted social-emotional resilience over the course of the semester. Moreover, students who took part in the science curriculum component of the program showed a trend for improved academic performance. Findings are discussed in terms of the potential for school-based MBIs to promote positive outcomes in at-risk youth.

I Doubt It Is Safe: A Meta-analysis of Self-reported Intolerance of Uncertainty and Threat Extinction Training

BackgroundIntolerance of uncertainty (IU), the tendency to find uncertainty distressing, is an important transdiagnostic dimension in mental health disorders. Higher self-reported IU has been linked to poorer threat extinction training (i.e., the updating of threat to safe associations), a key process that is targeted in exposure-based therapies. However, it remains to be seen whether IU-related effects during threat extinction training are reliably and specifically driven by the IU construct or a particular subcomponent of the IU construct over other self-reported measures of anxiety. MethodsA meta-analysis of studies from different laboratories (18 experiments; sample N = 1006) was conducted on associations between different variants of self-reported IU (i.e., 27-item, 12-item, inhibitory, and prospective subscales), trait anxiety, and threat extinction training via skin conductance response. The specificity of IU and threat extinction training was assessed against measures of trait anxiety. ResultsAll the self-reported variants of IU, but not trait anxiety, were associated with threat extinction training via skin conductance response (i.e., continued responding to the old threat cue). Specificity was observed for the majority of self-reported variants of IU over trait anxiety. ConclusionsThe findings suggest that the IU construct broadly accounts for difficulties in threat extinction training and is specific over other measures of self-reported anxiety. These findings demonstrate the robustness and specificity of IU-related effects during threat extinction training and highlight potential opportunities for translational work to target uncertainty in therapies that rely on threat extinction principles such as exposure therapy.

The Role of Motivation and Anxiety on Error Awareness in Younger and Older Adults.

Aging is associated with several changes in cognitive functions, as well as in motivational and affective processes, which in turn interact with cognitive functions. The present study aimed to investigate error awareness (EA), which declines with aging, in relation to motivation and anxiety. Adopting an experimental task, we firstly tested the hypothesis that EA could be enhanced through reward motivation. Secondly, we explored the relation between state and trait anxiety and EA, investigating the hypothesis of an association between EA and anxiety, and between anxiety and the potential benefit of motivation on EA. Thirty healthy younger (age range: 19–35 years; mean age 25.4 ± 5.1; 10 M) and 30 healthy older adults (age range: 61–83 years; mean age 69.7 ± 5.5; 12 M) took part in the study and performed both the classic Error Awareness Task (EAT) and one experimental task, called the Motivational EAT. In this new task, motivational incentives were delivered after aware correct responses and aware errors. For every participant, standard measures of state and trait anxiety and cognitive functions were collected. Confirming the presence of a significant age-related EA decline, results did not reveal any influence of reward motivation on EA, nor any relation between EA and anxiety. However, both younger and older adults had longer response times (RTs) and made more errors during the Motivational EAT, with the more anxious participants showing the greater RT slowing. Findings suggest that reward motivation might not be always beneficial for cognitive performance, as well as that anxiety does not relate to EA capacity. Results also recommend further investigation, as well as the assessment of EA in patients with either motivational deficits like apathy, and/or with anxiety disorders.

Genetic contributions to anxiety disorders: where we are and where we are heading.

Anxiety disorders are among the most common psychiatric disorders worldwide. They often onset early in life, with symptoms and consequences that can persist for decades. This makes anxiety disorders some of the most debilitating and costly disorders of our time. Although much is known about the synaptic and circuit mechanisms of fear and anxiety, research on the underlying genetics has lagged behind that of other psychiatric disorders. However, alongside the formation of the Psychiatric Genomic Consortium Anxiety workgroup, progress is rapidly advancing, offering opportunities for future research.Here we review current knowledge about the genetics of anxiety across the lifespan from genetically informative designs (i.e. twin studies and molecular genetics). We include studies of specific anxiety disorders (e.g. panic disorder, generalised anxiety disorder) as well as those using dimensional measures of trait anxiety. We particularly address findings from large-scale genome-wide association studies and show how such discoveries may provide opportunities for translation into improved or new therapeutics for affected individuals. Finally, we describe how discoveries in anxiety genetics open the door to numerous new research possibilities, such as the investigation of specific gene-environment interactions and the disentangling of causal associations with related traits and disorders.We discuss how the field of anxiety genetics is expected to move forward. In addition to the obvious need for larger sample sizes in genome-wide studies, we highlight the need for studies among young people, focusing on specific underlying dimensional traits or components of anxiety.

Effectiveness of transdiagnostic group cognitive-behavioural therapy for anxiety disorders in a naturalistic clinical setting

ABSTRACT Objective: The present study evaluated the effectiveness of a transdiagnostic group-based cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) programme for treating anxiety, comorbid depression, and functional impairments in a hospital outpatient specialist anxiety disorders clinic. Method: 107 adult outpatients with a primary anxiety disorder completed an eight-session transdiagnostic group CBT program. Participants also completed self-report measures assessing general anxiety, anxiety disorder-specific symptoms, comorbid depression symptoms, and functional impairments. Data were collected at pre - and post-treatment, and at follow-up. Results: Significant pre- to post-treatment reductions were found on measures of state and trait anxiety, impairment in work and social functioning, comorbid depression, social anxiety, and worry severity. These treatment gains were maintained at follow-up. Limitations: There was no comparison control group in the present study given that it was conducted in a hospital setting. Some diagnostic groups were also underrepresented in the sample, which limits the conclusions that can be drawn about the effectiveness of the group treatment across anxiety disorders. Conclusions: The present findings provided preliminary support for the effectiveness and generalisability of an eight-session transdiagnostic group-based CBT delivered at a public health service, indicating its potential as a cost-effective and clinically efficient alternative to individual therapy or diagnosis-specific treatments for anxiety disorders. KEY POINTS What is already known about this topic: (1) Transdiagnostic group CBT is efficacious for treating anxiety disorders. (2) Very few studies to date have examined the effectiveness of transdiagnostic group CBT in naturalistic settings. (3) Few of the existing effectiveness studies have included disorder-specific and daily functioning measures, or conducted follow-up assessment. What this topic adds: (1) An eight-session transdiagnostic group CBT for anxiety disorders appears sufficient in leading to improvements in general and specific anxiety symptoms, work and social functioning, and comorbid depression for patients from a hospital outpatient clinic. (2) Treatment gains were maintained at follow-up. (3) Transdiagnostic group CBT is an effective, potentially cost- and resource-efficient, and easily accessible alternative to individual therapy or diagnosis-specific treatments in a naturalistic setting.

Can you escape the virtual room? A novel paradigm to assess avoidance behaviour

Anxiety patients often experience conflicts between approaching (pass barking dog) and avoiding (take detour) feared situations. In most experimental avoidance paradigms, response options are limited or forced, making it difficult to generalize the results to daily life situations. The aim of the present study was twofold: 1) to develop a more ecologically valid avoidance paradigm; 2) to examine the influence of individual characteristics (trait anxiety; distress tolerance) on approach-avoidance behaviour. To encourage free exploration behaviour, a virtual reality (VR) escape room was developed. In this room, participants searched for cues to decipher a code-locked door. Opening a marked vase (conditioned stimulus, CS) was followed by a jump scare, a rat jumping out of the vase (unconditioned stimulus, US). Avoidance was measured via questionnaires and relative manipulation time of CS-marked (EXPgen) or nonmarked (CONT) objects in the room; questionnaires measured trait anxiety and distress tolerance. EXPgen participants reported higher US expectancies and more avoidance of the (marked) vase compared to the CONT participants, yet behavioural data did not support these ratings. Additionally, higher trait anxiety scores coincided with higher US expectancies before the jump scare. The current flexible free-exploratory paradigm provides multiple opportunities to examine avoidance behaviour in different populations and settings.

Anxiety and verbal learning in typically developing primary school children: Less efficient but equally effective.

Despite evidence that high levels of anxiety can impair Working Memory (WM) functioning, little is known about how anxiety is associated with classroom learning activities, which make high demands on verbal WM. To investigate the association between anxiety and learning on a task which makes high demands on verbal WM. Participants were 119 typically developing, Australian elementary school children (M age=9.25years; SD=7.6months). In individual testing sessions, measures of trait anxiety (Spence Childhood Anxiety Scales) and state anxiety (Visual Analogue scale) were made. The Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, which makes similar demands on WM to many classroom activities, was administered. Neither trait nor state anxiety alone was associated with mean recall across trials, however their interaction showed a significant effect. In children high on both measures of anxiety, learning followed a different trajectory. They learned more slowly on the first three trials than less anxious peers, then caught up on the remaining trials. While their mean recall scores across trials were significantly lower than those of less anxious peers, they retained as many words on the delayed learning trial. In a group of typically developing children, learning on the early, more demanding learning trials of a verbal learning task was vulnerable to heightened anxiety. However, the extra opportunities to learn on later trials enabled more anxious children to learn as much as their less anxious peers. While they learnt less efficiently, they learnt equally effectively.