Measures Of Procrastination Research Articles

Delay or procrastination – A comparison of self-report and behavioral measures of procrastination and their impact on affective well-being

A short-term longitudinal study (N=162 undergraduate students) replicates and extends previous findings on the relationship between self-reported procrastination and behavioral measures of procrastination (i.e., a comparison between actual and planned study time), and assesses their relation with affective well-being. All variables were measured 16 times over the course of 8weeks. State measured self-reported and behavioral procrastination correlated only moderately. In line with the definition of procrastination as a combination of delaying to work on a task and discomfort with the delay, affective well-being was better predicted by self-reported than by behavioral procrastination. This suggests that self-reported procrastination better reflects the construct than a purely behavioral measure of procrastination. Consequences and implications for further assessment of procrastination are discussed.

A study of procrastination level in Indian business school students

Procrastination comes from the Latin word procrastinatus: pro- (forward) and crastinuss (of tomorrow), and means “put off intentionally the doing of something that should be done.” The goal of this study is to explore the effects and interactions between genders in the prediction of procrastination in B-school students. A sample of 108 B-school students in the age group of 21–27 years completed measures of procrastination. Descriptive statistics indicated that the major reason for procrastination was laziness, second was difficulty in making decisions followed by perfectionism. Results of descriptive statistics and t test analysis predicted that there is no significant difference gender wise with regard to level of procrastination. B-School students have to face lot of stress because of multiple tasks and shooting deadlines. This study will help B-school students to understand the reasons for their procrastinating approach and proposes actions to overcome it.

Predictors of course outcomes: early indicators of delay in online classrooms

Studies have long shown that students who begin or submit their work later tend to have negative academic outcomes. The measures of procrastination used in those studies may not have provided information timely enough for instructor intervention. This article focuses on delay in the online environment among graduate students. We propose two new measures of delay that can be disclosed in a timely manner, enabling instructors to help students who are prone to late submissions to succeed. Date of class registration and date of initial class posting are negatively associated with final letter grades. Date of first class posting can serve to alert instructors to those with potential delay problems. The results for date of class registration are less clear.

Development and validation of a 2 × 2 model of time-related academic behavior: Procrastination and timely engagement

Procrastination is an educational concern for classroom instructors because of its negative psychological and academic impacts on students. However, the traditional view of procrastination as a unidimensional construct is insufficient in two regards. First, the construct needs to be viewed more broadly as time-related academic behavior, encompassing both procrastination and timely engagement. Secondly, the underlying motivation of these behaviors needs to be considered. Therefore, we developed and validated a 2×2 model of time-related academic behavior. The results of a confirmatory factor analysis supported a four-factor structure, and correlation with a unidimensional measure of procrastination also supported this model. Furthermore, the 2×2 model demonstrated significantly better fit to the data than potentially competing models. Structural equation modeling with achievement goals revealed that the 2×2 model unveiled relationships previously obscured in the traditional model, including that procrastination appeared to be used as a performance-enhancing strategy, while timely engagement was used to enhance mastery. The theoretical and practical implications of these new relationships are discussed.

Content Analyses of the Beliefs of Academic Procrastinators

Although relevant nomothetically-based personality literature has made great advances in recent years correlating traits to measures of procrastination, little is known about the specific irrational beliefs of procrastinators, especially when they are actively avoiding tasks or situations. Based on theories from Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), it was hypothesized that compared to non-procrastinators, college student academic procrastinators would show greater self depreciation, greater other depreciation, greater life condition depreciation, and a lower frustration tolerance. Academic procrastination was operationally defined by quartile distributions on two self- report measures and three classroom-based assignments. Procrastinators and non-procrastinating students were given instructions to write approximately 500 words about their thoughts and feelings while they were in the process of actively putting off a specific, real event. While actually procrastinating, students logged on to a web site and made text entries describing what was going through their minds. Data were analyzed with the Psychiatric Content and Diagnosis Program Version 3 (PCAD 3; Gottschalk and Bechtel in Psychiatric content and diagnosis: the PCAD 3. GB Software, Brighton, MI, 2007). Procrastinators and non-procrastinators differed on relevant PCAD scales, supporting the hypotheses derived from REBT theory. Treatment implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Adaptation and Validation of Self-regulating Capacity in Vocabulary Learning Scale

This article reports on an adaptation and validation study of SRCvoc (self-regulating capacity in vocabulary learning scale; Tseng et al. 2006) in a Japanese EFL setting. The piloting phase revealed that factor structures were different from those in the original study. The main study, including a self-reported measure of procrastination to explore the convergent evidence of the construct validity, suggests that the scale can be a valid measure of self-regulation capacity in vocabulary learning in a Japanese EFL environment. These findings provide implications for future studies that utilize the same type of research paradigm.

Development of an academic procrastination scale

This study evaluated the factor structure and internal consistency of a new academic procrastination measure employing both the adaptive and maladaptive aspects of procrastination. Two hundred fifty college students responded to a 150-item initial instrument. Factor analysis using oblique rotation revealed three subscales: Structured Procrastination, Unstructured Procrastination, and Non-Procrastination. Confirmatory Factor Analysis resulted to a new 65-item academic procrastination scale that could distinguish structured procrastination with desirable outcomes from unstructured procrastination with undesirable outcomes. The three subscales showed good internal consistency reliabilities with structured procrastination getting a reliability coefficient of α= 0.928, unstructured procrastination α= 0.914, and non-procrastination α= 0.792. A significant relationship was also found between structured procrastination and unstructured procrastination (r = .346, p <.001), which illustrated the convergent and discriminant validity of the constructs. The new academic procrastination measure had the potential to be adopted in any academic settings and could be used to investigate behavioral factors related to academic achievement’s antecedents and consequences. Keywords: structured procrastination; unstructured procrastination; factor analysis DOI: 10.3860/taper.v19i3.1858 The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 19:3 (2010), pp. 515-524

I forgive myself, now I can study: How self-forgiveness for procrastinating can reduce future procrastination

In the present study, we examined the association between forgiving the self for a specific instance of procrastination and procrastination on that same task in the future. A sample of 119 first-year University students (49 male, 70 female) completed measures of procrastination and self-forgiveness immediately before each of two midterm examinations in their introductory psychology course. Results revealed that among students who reported high levels of self-forgiveness for procrastinating on studying for the first examination, procrastination on preparing for the subsequent examination was reduced. This relationship was mediated by negative affect, such that increased self-forgiveness reduced procrastination by decreasing negative affect. Results are discussed in relation to the impact of procrastination on self-directed negative affect.

Early Birds versus Just-in-Timers: The effect of procrastination on academic performance of accounting students

Abstract This study investigates the effect of procrastination on academic performance. Prior research has often relied upon self-reported measures of procrastination, which are only weakly correlated with actual procrastination. We use the start and submission of a set of online homework problems as two objective, direct measures of student procrastination and the grade on the assignments as a measure of performance. In our study, there were a number of potential benefits to submitting online assignments ‘just-in-time’. Thus, there was a direct benefit to procrastination, which students had to weigh against potential drawbacks. With a sample size larger than those previously reported in the literature, we find that for both procrastination measures, task procrastination is associated with lower task performance. To ensure that our results are not just an association between performance and student quality, we test for the association between task procrastination and task performance, while controlling for student quality. We find that even after controlling for student quality, task procrastination is associated with lower task performance.

In search of the arousal procrastinator: Investigating the relation between procrastination, arousal-based personality traits and beliefs about procrastination motivations

Arousal procrastination was investigated to determine: (a) If the General Procrastination Scale (GP; Lay, 1986) measures procrastination motivated by arousal, and (b) whether sensation seeking (SS), extraversion (E), and the reducer index (R) account for variance in beliefs about the motivation for academic procrastination. Participants were 311 undergraduate students (60.1% female), primarily Caucasian (63.3%), with a mean age of 20.09 ( SD = 3.08). An online questionnaire package included measures of procrastination and 3 arousal-based personality inventories. A factor analysis of the GP and the Sensation Seeking Scale-V (SSS-V; Zuckerman, Eysenck, & Eysenck, 1978) produced six factors with the GP and SSS-V items loading on separate factors, indicating no relation. A regression analysis revealed that SS, E, and R together accounted for 5.2% of the variance in participants’ arousal-related beliefs motivating their procrastination. These results challenge the existing literature claiming that the GP is a measure of arousal procrastination, but do indicate that some individuals believe that their procrastination is motivated by a need for heightened arousal.

An ego identity perspective on volitional action: Identity status, agency, and procrastination

Identity has been positively related to agency. Agency theoretically confers the capacity for action required for timely task completion. Given this theoretical link between identity and procrastination, we hypothesized that level of ego identity development would be negatively related to procrastination. Participants (101 female, 38 male) completed the Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status-revised, the Procrastination Assessment Scale – Students, and the General Procrastination Scale. Diffusion ( r = .22) and Moratorium ( r = .30) status scores showed significant positive correlations with an aggregate measure of procrastination, Achievement status scores ( r = −.34) yielded a negative correlation, and Foreclosure status scores showed no significant correlation. A regression of the four identity status scores on procrastination while controlling for gender was significant ( R 2 = .19, F (5, 133) = 6.09, p < .001) with Moratorium and Achievement scores accounting for the variance in the aggregate procrastination measure. These findings support both our hypothesis of a negative relation of identity status to procrastination and the theoretical link between agency and procrastination. The opposite relation of Moratorium and Achievement to procrastination is explained in terms of Erikson’s ego synthetic and executive functions and their link to the identity dimensions of exploration and commitment.

Procrastination: Associations with achievement goal orientation and learning strategies

Conceptualizations of procrastination as self-regulation failure have received considerable empirical support. However, procrastination has only occasionally been examined in relation to variables emphasized in models of self-regulated learning. We examined relations between procrastination, achievement goal orientations, and learning strategies. One hundred and seventy undergraduates completed measures of procrastination, goal orientation, and learning strategies usage. Bivariate correlations revealed that procrastination related negatively to a mastery-approach goal orientation and positively to a mastery-avoidance goal orientation. Procrastination was also related to greater disorganization and less use of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies. Multiple regression analyses revealed that disorganization and cognitive strategies usage were most predictive of procrastination. Results are interpreted within a self-regulation perspective.

“I’ll look after my health, later”: A replication and extension of the procrastination–health model with community-dwelling adults

Initial investigations into the links between procrastination and health in student samples implicated stress-related and behavioural pathways. However, it is unknown if these relations are the same for community-dwelling adults, or if alternative measures of procrastination and health behaviors will yield the same results. To replicate and extend previous findings 254 adults recruited from the community and the Internet completed self-report measures of procrastination, health, stress, wellness and household safety behaviours. Consistent with previous work, procrastination was associated with higher stress, more acute health problems, and the practice of fewer wellness behaviours. Procrastinators also reported fewer household safety behaviours, and less frequent dental and medical check-ups. The structural equation modeling analyses revealed that stress fully mediated the procrastination–health relationship, but health behaviours did not when the combined effect with stress was considered. These findings suggest that in addition to hindering a variety of health-related behaviours, procrastination may confer additional risk for increased stress, and consequently more health problems.

Factorial Structure of Three Procrastination Scales with a Spanish Adult Population

The present study explored the factorial structure of three well-known procrastination measures: the General Procrastination Scale (GP; Lay, 1986 ), the Adult Inventory of Procrastination (AIP; McCown &amp; Johnson, 1989 ), and the Decisional Procrastination Scale (DP; Mann, 1982 ) with 502 Spanish adults between 25 and 67 years old. The principal component analysis indicated a one-factor structure for GP and DP, and two factor components for AIP. The internal consistency of the three scales was satisfactory. Results suggested that the Spanish versions of the three procrastination scales were effective and reliable. Finally, a principal component analysis with the three scales indicated a four-factor model of procrastination, namely: dilatory behaviors, indecision, lack of punctuality, and lack of planning.

Exploring the dynamic nature of procrastination: A latent growth curve analysis of academic procrastination

A growing body of research suggests that academic procrastination is a dynamic behavior that follows a curvilinear trajectory over time. In this research, we examined whether there are inter-individual differences in this trajectory, the extent to which these differences can be predicted by other variables, and the relationship between temporal changes in procrastination and academic outcomes. We collected multi-wave data from 303 students regarding their actual procrastination behavior and test performance during an academic semester, as well as single measurements of their self-reported levels of trait procrastination, conscientiousness, and neuroticism. Using latent growth curve modeling, we found that high and low procrastinators followed the same trajectory over time, that the self-report measures did not predict temporal changes in procrastination and test performance, and that procrastination behavior was negatively related to test performance throughout the semester. The implications of these findings for trait-based theories of procrastination, and the measurement of procrastination in general, are discussed.

Procrastination in Online Courses: Performance and Attitudinal Differences

This study investigated the relation between dilatory behaviors and performance in students whom we randomly assigned to either an online or a traditional, lecture introductory psychology class. Both sections had full access to a class Web site. There were no reliable differences between the 2 sections of the class on the measures of procrastination, exam performance, or attitudes toward the class. Yet, procrastination was negatively related with exam scores and with attitudes toward the class for the online students, but not for the lecture students. This difference may partially explain why online courses designed to increase the educational efficacy of a course often show no difference in performance when compared to lecture classes.

Validation of a new scale for measuring problematic internet use: implications for pre-employment screening.

The current study introduced a theory-driven, multidimensional measure of problematic Internet use: the Online Cognition Scale (OCS). Undergraduate students (n = 211) in an industrial/organizational psychology course completed the OCS, along with measures of procrastination, rejection sensitivity, loneliness, depression, and impulsivity. A confirmatory factor analysis indicated that problematic Internet use consists of four dimensions: diminished impulse control, loneliness/depression, social comfort, and distraction. As hypothesized, the OCS predicted all of the study variables in the expected directions. Representing a departure from previous research in this area, the current article focused on procrastination, impulsivity, and social rejection as key elements of problematic Internet use. Furthermore, interactive applications (e.g., chat) were most related to problematic Internet use, and scores on the OCS predicted being reprimanded at school or work for inappropriate Internet use. As a result, the utility of the OCS for both clinical assessment of Internet addiction and as an organizational preemployment screening measure to identify potential employees who are likely to abuse the Internet in the workplace (also known as "cyberslacking") were discussed.

Procrastination, conscientiousness, anxiety, and goals: Exploring the measurement and correlates of procrastination among school‐aged children

AbstractWe explore the reliability and validity of a self‐report measure of procrastination and conscientiousness designed for use with third‐ to fifth‐grade students. The responses of 120 students are compared with teacher and parent ratings of the student. Confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses were also used to examine the structure of the scale. Procrastination and conscientiousness are highly correlated (inversely); evidence suggests that procrastination and conscientiousness are aspects of the same construct. Procrastination and conscientiousness are correlated with the Physiological Anxiety subscale of the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale, and with the Task (Mastery) and Avoidance (Task Aversiveness) subscales of Skaalvik's (1997) Goal Orientation Scales. Both theoretical implications and implications for interventions are discussed. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Point-of-Time Effects Across the Semester: Is There a Sampling Bias?

Prior research has yielded inconsistent findings regarding differences between university participant-pool students who volunteer early or late in the semester. This issue is important because external validity may be threatened when researchers take samples from university participant pools. In the present study, point-of-time effects were investigated via measures of procrastination, motivation, locus of control, and cued recall. The findings suggest that slight differences exist between early and late volunteers on some measures of personality and motivation; however, there were no point-of-time effects for cued recall. The data indicate that if performance-based measures (e.g., cued recall) are under investigation, potential differences in personality and motivation may be attenuated because of the demand characteristics of laboratory settings.

The nature and measurement of compulsive indecisiveness

Indecisiveness is an often mentioned symptom of obsessive compulsive disorder and obsessive compulsive personality disorder, yet very little research has been done examining its nature and measurement. Three studies are presented here which examine the nature of compulsive indecisiveness using a newly developed scale. In study 1 the Indecisiveness Scale was correlated with measures of obsessionality and compulsive checking among normal Ss. It was also correlated with the maladaptive evaluative concern dimensions of perfectionism and with compulsive hoarding. In study 2 indecisive Ss (as measured by the Indecisiveness Scale) were found to score higher on measures of procrastination and general psychopathology. In addition, they reported problems in making decisions in a variety of life domains (social, academic, family and everyday). In study 3 Ss who scored high on the Indecisiveness Scale were found to have longer latencies on an experimental decision-making task. The implications of these findings for the nature of indecisiveness were discussed.