Measures Of Gender Identity Research Articles

The measurement of gender expression in survey research

Previous research on the survey measurement of sexual orientation, gender identity, and gender expression (SOGIE) often focuses on the measurement of identity, with comparably little research focused on gender expression as a key feature of how gender is lived and experienced. This study examines the reliability and validity of survey questions about gender expression in a 2-by-5-by-2 factorial experiment that varies the question order, type of response scale, and the order of gender presentation in the response scale.The results indicate that the effect of which (side of the) scale is presented first on gender expression varies by gender for each of the unipolar items and one of the bipolar items (behavior). In addition, the unipolar items also show distinctions among the gender minority population in ratings of gender expression as well as more nuance with respect to concurrent validity in predicting health outcomes among cisgender respondents. The results of this study have implications for researchers who are interested in accounting for gender holistically in survey and health disparities research.

Beyond Wokeness: Why We Should All Be Using a More "Sensitive" Measure of Self-Reported Gender Identity.

Gender plays a significant role in an individual's experiences and behaviors, as well as their expectations of others. Researchers have long operationalized gender using limited, mutually exclusive categories that fail to capture the rich variability within a gender-diverse population. While open-ended responses or multi-item scales may be a socially progressive approach and necessary for some gender-based research (e.g., Bauer et al., 2017), it may be unsuitable and statistically unfeasible for quantitative researchers in other areas. We analyzed responses from over 700 gender-diverse participants in the U.S. on a series of unipolar scales (i.e., gender identity, expression, and perception by others) that granted participants the flexibility of selecting a comprehensive self-definition while still enabling quantitative analysis of group differences as well as capturing maximum within-group variability. Using a cluster analysis, we found that participants' responses were best represented by five categories: Archetypical Men (n = 169), Archetypical Women (n = 168), Intertypical Men (n = 158), Intertypical Women (n = 126), and Nonconforming (n = 85). We explore the variability of characteristics and beliefs (e.g., gender norms, sexist beliefs) within and between traditional sex and these new gender categories. In this paper, we discuss theoretical considerations for future research and how using this comprehensive operationalization of gender can expand our understanding of "gender differences'' beyond the current scientific assumptions and barriers.

LGBTQ+ food insufficiency in New England.

As a group, LGBTQ+ people experience food insecurity at a disproportionately high rate, yet food security scholars and practitioners are only beginning to uncover patterns in how food insecurity varies by subgroups of this diverse community. In this paper, we use data from the U.S. Census Bureau's Household Pulse Survey-which added measures of gender identity and sexuality for the first time in 2021-to analyze New Englanders' food insufficiency rates by gender, sexuality, race, and ethnicity. We find that (1) in the past seven days, 13.0 percent of LGB + (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and other non-heterosexual) New Englanders experience food insufficiency-which is nearly twice the rate of heterosexual people-and 19.8 percent of transgender+ (transgender, genderqueer, gender non-binary, and other non-cisgender people) New Englanders experience food insufficiency-which is two to three times the rate of cisgender men and women. (2) Whereas cisgender New Englanders experience food insufficiency at a lower rate than their counterparts in the rest of the nation (about two percentage points lower for both cisgender men and women), transgender+ New Englanders experience no such New England advantage compared to transgender+ people in the country as a whole. (3) LGBTQ+ New Englanders of color experience devastatingly high rates of food insufficiency, with, for example, one in three Black transgender+ New Englanders not having enough food to eat in the past seven days. These findings suggest that addressing food insecurity in New England demands approaching the problem with an intersectional queer lens, with attention to the ways in which racism, cissexism, and heterosexism are creating a systemic, ongoing food crisis for LGBTQ+ New Englanders, especially those who are transgender+ and/or people of color.

Strategies to Improve Measurement of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Among Youth

Understanding the experiences of sexual and gender minority (SGM)1 youth is essential for developing policies and programs aimed at improving their health and quality of life. Because SGM youth are more likely than their cisgender and heterosexual peers to experience stigma, discrimination, family disapproval, and social rejection, they are at a significantly higher risk of bullying, violence, drug and alcohol use, sexually transmitted infections, depression, and attempted suicide [1,2]. Family support and social acceptance, however, are linked to better wellbeing for SGM youth, highlighting the need for improved data collection on the factors that shape the social, economic, and health outcomes of SGM youth in the United States.

What Category Best Fits: Understanding Transgender Identity in a Survey of Autistic Individuals.

Calls for improved measures of gender identity to understand the experience of transgender individuals have grown rapidly in the past 5 years. The need for methodological innovation in this topic area has particular importance for the autistic population since a higher co-occurrence of transgender identities among autistic people has been documented but is not well understood. We use a survey with questions that reflect standards in 2018 to demonstrate how binary conceptualizations of gender did not adequately capture gender identities of transgender autistic individuals. Using descriptive statistics from a statewide survey of 1527 autistic adults (mean age 27.5 years), this study compared self-reported survey responses to close-ended standard questions at the time about gender identity to understand shortcomings in capturing this population authentically. We found a mismatch between respondents answering that they were transgender, the sex assigned at birth, and gender identity on separate questions. We postulate that transgender men and women were likely selecting binary responses when asked about gender identity. Furthermore, we found that many qualitative responses reported in the self-selected "other" category reflected nonbinary identities and utilized specific terminology that revealed nuance in how they understood gender identities. We urge researchers to provide multiple flexible options when measuring gender identity in autistic populations as they are likely to encompass many identities. We endorse best practices for measuring gender identity for autistic research.

Measuring sex, gender, and sexual orientation: one step to health equity

Health is shaped by access to power and resources based on sex, gender identity, and sexual orientation, as well as other intersecting social categories. 1 European Institute for Gender EqualityEIGE-2021 Gender Equality Index 2021 Report. https://eige.europa.eu/publications/gender-equality-index-2021-reportDate: 2021 Date accessed: July 21, 2022 Google Scholar Accurate measurement of sexual orientation, gender identity, and sex characteristics (SOGISC) can provide data that reveal social and health inequities to inform research, programmes, and policies to address health disparities. The US National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine's 2022 report, Measuring Sex, Gender Identity, and Sexual Orientation, 2 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and MedicineMeasuring sex, gender identity, and sexual orientation. National Academies Press, Washington, DC2022https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/measuring-sex-gender-identity-and-sexual-orientation-for-the-national-institutes-of-health#sectionPublicationsDate accessed: July 21, 2022 Google Scholar was requested by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the USA to examine SOGISC measurement for surveys in research, administrative, and clinical contexts. This report is unique in its approach to systematically evaluating existing measures of SOGISC in the USA and other English-speaking countries, recommending measures of SOGISC for use by the NIH, and identifying future research areas.

A gender-sensitive analysis of the feasibility and benefit of a psychological intervention for patients with advanced cancer

Background: The role of gender in psychotherapy has been widely recognized but infrequently investigated in psychotherapy trials. We conducted a secondary analysis of data from a randomized controlled trial of Managing Cancer and Living Meaningfully (CALM), a supportive-expressive intervention for individuals with advanced cancer, to examine gender effects in the feasibility, acceptability, perceived benefit, and effectiveness of CALM. Methods: Trial participants, outpatients with advanced cancer (N = 305, 40% men and 60% women), completed measures at baseline, 3 months (t1), and 6 months (t2). We investigated gender differences in participation rates, attrition rates, number of CALM sessions received, and perceived benefit of CALM. Separate subgroup analyses of data and gender × treatment group moderator analyses from men and women were compared in examining treatment effects on depressive symptoms, end-of-life preparation, and death anxiety at each follow-up period. Results: No gender differences were observed in participation or attrition rates, number of CALM sessions received, or perceived benefit of CALM. In subgroup analyses at t2, men in CALM reported significantly lower depressive symptoms than men in usual care (UC; P = .017), women in CALM with moderate baseline death anxiety reported lower death anxiety than women in UC (P = .009), and both men (P = .022) and women (P = .016) in CALM reported greater end-of-life preparation than those in UC. There were no significant gender × treatment group interaction effects on any outcome. Conclusions: CALM therapy is feasible, acceptable, and beneficial on different outcomes for men and women. Further clinical trials with comprehensive measures of gender identity are needed to evaluate gender effects in psychotherapeutic interventions for patients with advanced disease.

Continuous Gender Identity and Economics

Economic research on gender largely focuses on biological sex, the binary classification as either a “man” or “woman.” We investigate the value of incorporating a measure of continuous gender identity (CGI) into economics by exploring whether it explains variation in economic preferences and behavior beyond the explanatory power of binary sex. First, we validate a novel single-item CGI measure in a survey study, showing that it correlates with measures used in gender research. Second, we use our single-item CGI measure in an incentivized laboratory experiment to assess CGI's power in explaining previously documented gender gaps in four important economic preferences.

Between a boy and a girl: Measuring gender identity on a continuum.

Studies of gender development typically use binary, discrete measures of identity. However, growing literature indicates that some children might not identify with a binary gender. We tested a continuous measure of felt gender identity with gender-nonconforming children, socially-transitioned transgender children, cisgender siblings, and unrelated cisgender children. In two studies, we found that transgender and cisgender children did not differ in their degree of identifying as their current gender, that they showed more binary identities compared to gender-nonconforming children, and that the continuum was a valid predictor of other measures of gender development. We also found that children's use of the continuous measure was stable over time. Our results demonstrate the test-retest reliability and validity of a new single-item continuous measure of gender.

A Semantic Scale Network analysis of the revised Mystical Experiences Questionnaire: A call for collaboration

Abstract Background and aims Multiple laboratories have proposed measures of subjective effects of psychedelics as potential mediators of their therapeutic impact. Other work has identified individual differences that covary with subjective responses in informative ways. The range of potential measures of responses, traits, and outcomes is vast. Ideas for new measures are likely numerous. The field will progress efficiently if proposed new scales can add incremental validity. Semantic Scale Network analyses identify conceptual overlap among scales based on items (rather than participant ratings), which could help laboratories avoid putting effort into measures that are unlikely to account for unique variance. Semantic Scale Network analyses can also reveal links to constructs from disparate research literatures, potentially helping investigators generate novel hypotheses and explain connections among disparate findings. The results of Semantic Scale Network analyses have the potential to improve as more investigators enter their scales into the corpus. Method Example analyses using the revised Mystical Experiences Questionnaire (MEQ) underscore the uniqueness and discriminant validity of the MEQ subscales. Results Findings dovetail with published theorizing and suggest potentially novel links with different therapeutic effects. The MEQ total or subscales overlap with measures of awe, inspiration, regret, dissatisfaction, transcendence, depression, fatigue, and spirituality. Links with measures of stress, alexithymia, and gender identity suggest lines of further work. Conclusions This analytic approach might suggest unique applications for psychedelic-assisted treatments and provide perspectives on phenomena outside the field. As psychedelic researchers enter their scales to the corpus for Semantic Scale Network analyses, the field will benefit.

Measurement of gender and sexuality in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study

The Adolescent Brain Cognitive DevelopmentSM (ABCD) study is a longitudinal study of adolescent brain development and health that includes over 11,800 youth in the United States. The ABCD study includes broad developmental domains, and gender and sexuality are two of these with noted changes across late childhood and early adolescence. The Gender Identity and Sexual Health (GISH) workgroup recommends measures of gender and sexuality for the ABCD study, prioritizing those that are developmentally sensitive, capture individual differences in the experience of gender and sexuality, and minimize participant burden. This manuscript describes the gender and sexuality measures used in ABCD and provides guidance for researchers using these data. Data showing the utility of these measures and longitudinal trends are presented. Including assessment of gender and sexuality in ABCD allows for characterization of developmental trajectories of gender and sexuality, and the broad scope of ABCD data collection allows examination of identity development in an intersectional manner.

Identifying trans and non-binary youth in population-based school health surveys in western Canada

Abstract Background Most research about gender-diverse adolescents is with clinical samples, skewing population estimates of health and risk. With trans youth estimated at around 0.5% of the population and no reliable measures, school health surveys have not asked gender diversity items. In 2018, the British Columbia Adolescent Health Survey (BCAHS) in Canada trialled measures to differentiate cisgender, trans, and non-binary youth, to capture a representative picture of health for gender-diverse young people. Methods The 2018 BCAHS is a stratified random survey of 2,175 classrooms of grades 7-12 (ages 12-19) in 58/60 school districts province-wide (N = 38,015). Two measures asked about sex assigned at birth and current gender identity, combined to identify cisgender boys and girls, trans boys, trans girls, non-binary and questioning youth. We examined patterns of missingness by demographics. Results Overall, nearly 99% of youth responded to both items, with very low missing (0.5% for sex, 0.8% gender identity) with no differences by school or district, or by age. Missing responses were higher among international students and English language learners but still low (1.1%). Youth living in foster care or with a disability or chronic condition also had higher odds of skipping both items, but the highest missing was only 3.7% among youth with FASD. Overall, 48.9% identified as cis girls, 48.6% as cis boys, 0.13% as trans girls, 0.33% trans boys, 0.75% non-binary, and 1.28% as not sure (479 trans/non-binary, and 484 unsure). Preliminary analyses show positive assets also support gender diverse youth well-being. Conclusions A two-step measure of gender identity is feasible for adolescents as young as 12 years old in large scale school surveys, with very low missing responses in western Canada. Although <1% identified as trans, in large samples stable estimates for population comparisons are possible. Future studies should pilot gender identity measures in other nations/languages.

Acoustic correlates of gender identity in American English speech

A recent study with native German speakers finds that acoustic properties of speech associated with biological sex may also vary within-sex as a function of gender identity, defined gradiently along continuous scales of self-reported masculinity/femininity [M. Weirich and A. P. Simpson, “Gender identity is indexed and perceived in speech,” PLoS One 13(12), e0209226]. In particular, Weirich and Simpson find that men who rate themselves as more feminine produce speech with somewhat more female-like characteristics, such as higher mean f0 and larger vowel space area (VSA) relative to men who rate themselves as less feminine. In the present study, we investigate whether such gradient measures of gender identity have a comparable relationship to acoustics in American English. Recordings of read speech produced by 74 native speakers from metropolitan New York City (38 females, 36 males) were analyzed with respect to VSA and spectral properties of the sibilant fricative /s/. Gradiently defined gender identity was, as in Weirich and Simpson (2018), estimated for all speakers using two established measures of self-reported femininity. We report findings related to VSA and /s/ for both male and female speakers, and discuss the implications for the role of sex and gender in phonetics research.

EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES OF GENDER-DIVERSE YOUTH: A National Population-Based Study.

Despite the growing population of youth identifying with a transgender or nonbinary gender identity, research on gender-diverse individuals' educational outcomes is limited. This study takes advantage of the first nationally representative, population-based data set that includes measures of gender identity and educational outcomes: the High School Longitudinal study of 2009. Using minority stress and structural symbolic interactionist frameworks, we examine the association between gender identity and high school and college educational outcomes. We compare the educational outcomes of gender-diverse youth-binary transgender, nonbinary, and gender unsure-with those of cisgender youth, and also examine differences within the gender-diverse population. Given the strong link between minority stress and educational experiences among gender-diverse youth, we examine differences in outcomes before and after accounting for school belonging and emotional distress. We also account for individuals' social-structural location, arguing that social positionality shapes both gender identity and educational outcomes. Results indicate important differences in educational outcomes within the gender-diverse population: Whereas binary transgender and gender-unsure youth exhibit educational disadvantage, relative to cisgender youth, nonbinary youth do not. The gender-unsure disadvantage remains even after accounting for differences in social-structural location and social-psychological factors associated with minority stress.

Analysis of Latina/o Sociodemographic and Health Data Sets in the United States From 1960 to 2019: Findings Suggest Improvements to Future Data Collection Efforts.

Introduction. Prior to 1980, U.S. national demographic and health data collection did not identify individuals of Hispanic/Latina/o heritage as a population group. Post-1990, robust immigration from Latin America (e.g., South America, Central America, Mexico) and subsequent growth in U.S. births, dynamically reconstructed the ethnoracial lines among Latinos from about 20 countries, increasing racial admixture and modifying patterns of health disparities. The increasing racial and class heterogeneity of U.S. Latina/os demands a critical analysis of sociodemographic factors associated with population health disparities. Purposes. To determine the state of available Latina/o population demographic and health data in the United States, assess demographic and health variables and trends from 1960 to the present, and identify current strengths, gaps, and areas of improvement. Method. Analysis of 101 existing data sets that included demographic, socioeconomic, and health characteristics of the U.S. Latina/o population, grouped by three, 20-year intervals: 1960-1979, 1980-1999, and 2000-2019. Results. Increased Latina/o immigration and U.S. births between 1960 and 2019 was associated with increases of Latino population samples in data collection. Findings indicate major gaps in the following four areas: children and youth younger than 18 years, gender and sexual identity, race and mixed-race measures, and immigration factors including nativity and generational status. Conclusions. The analysis of existing ethnoracial Latina/o population data collection efforts provides an opportunity for critical analysis of past trends, future directions in data collection efforts, and an equity lens to guide appropriate community health interventions and policies that will contribute to decreasing health disparities in Latina/o populations.

Prevalence of Gender-Diverse Youth in an Urban School District.

In many studies on gender-diverse youth (GDY), those whose gender identity and sex assigned at birth do not fully align, researchers cite the 2017 Youth Risk Behavior Survey finding that 1.8% of US high school students identify as “transgender.”1 This was the first nationally representative prevalence estimate of GDY and was higher than previous estimates. However, the question assessing gender identity (“Do you identify as transgender?”) likely underrepresents the prevalence of GDY because many do not identify with the word “transgender.” As an alternative, researchers recommend a 2-step question: (1) What was your sex assigned at birth? (2) Which of the following best describes your gender identity?2,3Much of the research involving GDY has been conducted in clinical settings, in which there is a predominance of white and masculine-identified youth.4–7 GDY of color, specifically Black and Hispanic transgender women, are more likely than other gender-diverse people to experience violence and socioeconomic disadvantage because of systemic racism and transmisogyny.8 These systemic inequities likely result in decreased access to gender-affirming care. Because access to gender-affirming care is associated with improved health outcomes,9 identifying groups who are not receiving care is vital to creating more equitable access to care for all GDY, but especially Black and Hispanic transgender women. The goal of this study was to assess the prevalence of GDY in a school-based sample to (1) document the prevalence of GDY by using a 2-step approach and (2) examine prevalence by race and ethnicity and gender identity.In October of 2018, a modified version of the Youth Risk Behavior Survey was distributed to ninth- to 12th-graders in 13 high schools, reaching 91% of the ∼4930 students in a Northeastern midsized city school district. The survey included a 2-step gender identity question: (1) “What is your sex (the sex you were assigned at birth, on your birth certificate)?” with the options “female” and “male” and (2) “Which of the following best describes you (select all that apply)?” with the options “girl,” “boy,” “trans girl,” “trans boy,” “genderqueer,” “nonbinary,” and “another identity.” Of 4730 returned surveys, 37 were found to be unreadable, and 243 were deemed mischievous responders or had <20 answered questions. An additional 1282 participants skipped questions regarding race and ethnicity or gender identity and were excluded from this analysis. Descriptive statistics were calculated by using Stata/SE, version 15.1 (Stata Corp, College Station, TX).Of 3168 surveys analyzed, incongruence between gender identity and sex assigned at birth was identified in 291 participants (9.2%; Table 1). This prevalence was 7.1% among white youth and higher among American Indian, Alaskan Native, Asian American, Pacific Islander, and/or Native Hawaiian, Hispanic, Black, and multiracial youth (13.4%, 14.4%, 9.9%, and 8.7% respectively). Gender identity among GDY was split between masculine (29.9%), feminine (38.8%), and nonbinary identities (31.3%), with 38 (13.1%) selecting >1 identity (Table 2).Nearly 10% of high school students surveyed reported a gender-diverse identity. The prevalence of GDY in this study is 5 times higher than current national estimates from a study involving 10 states and 9 urban school districts.1 Although these data were collected from a single urban school district, the findings may approximate a less biased estimate of the prevalence of youth with gender-diverse identities, given how gender identity was operationalized.Additionally, the demographics of GDY in this school-based study differ from those of GDY accessing gender-affirming care in the same region. A 2018 survey from the only pediatric gender clinic in the region found the majority of patients identified as white (88%) and masculine (65%).10 This clinic’s findings are consistent with other pediatric gender clinics across the United States4–7 and highlight the lack of diversity among youth receiving gender-affirming care, especially with respect to race and/or ethnicity and gender. These disparities suggest that gender clinics may not be reaching youth at the highest risk of experiencing violence, victimization, socioeconomic disadvantage, and health disparities: Black and Hispanic transgender women. Researchers should consider using a 2-step approach, as outlined above, to better reflect prevalence of GDY, particularly in statewide and national level surveys, with sample sizes allowing analysis of potential differences in gender identity by race and/or ethnicity and age. In addition to encouraging continued refinement of gender identity measures, particularly for youth, these findings underscore the need to re-evaluate systems and structures that continue to perpetuate inequities in access to gender-affirming care.We thank the Allegheny County Health Department for their role in data collection and for the use of these data. We are grateful to Pittsburgh Public School Board leadership for their collaboration.

The influence of minority stress on indicators of suicidality among lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender adults in Thailand.

INTRODUCTION: A large and rigorous body of research in the United States has demonstrated that lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) populations are at an elevated risk for suicide. However, scant research aimed at understanding the rates and predictors for suicidality among Thai LGBT individuals exists. To examine rates and predictors of suicidality among Thai LGBT adults (N=411). Data collection was conducted via online and in-person surveys. Guided by the Minority Stress Model, standardized measures of demographics, health-related factors, general and minority-specific stressors and suicidality were completed. Thirty-nine per cent of participants reported lifetime suicidal ideation, 19.0% past 12-month suicidal ideation and 13.1% lifetime suicide attempts. Lifetime suicidal ideation was associated with higher levels of social discrimination, stress, loneliness and chronic disease (OR=1.12, 1.16, 2.75, and 1.46, p ≤ .05, R2 = 0.327). Past-year suicidal ideation was associated with victimization, stress, loneliness and being a former smoker (OR=1.52, 1.20, 2.34, and 4.89, p<.05, R2 =0.345). Suicide attempts were associated with internalized homophobia, poverty, chronic disease, alcohol use and physical health (OR=1.44, 1.06, 1.59, 1.45 and 0.95, p≤0.05, R2 =0.187). General and minority-specific stressors negatively impacted suicidality among LGBT participants. Study findings have implications for nursing education, practice and research. Nursing education should include information about the influence of sexual orientation and gender identity on mental health outcomes. Further, systematic screening for suicidality should be conducted by LGBT serving psychiatric and mental health nurses. Finally, research is needed to determine best practices for interventions aimed at reducing suicidality risk among LGBT individuals.

Are all politics masculine? Gender socialised personality traits and diversity in political engagement

Most research studying gender and political participation fails to problematise the measure of gender identity. Using 2012/13 Dutch Longitudinal Internet Studies for the Social Sciences panel survey data, we investigate how gender-socialised personality traits relate to various types of political engagement. Baseline models show that, when significant, self-assessed socialised agentic/masculine traits are positively, and communal/feminine traits are negatively, related to political engagement, though only to activist types of engagement. Multivariate analyses reveal the positive link between agentic/masculine traits and very agentic forms of activity, including engaging with political parties and politicians and going to public hearings. Furthermore, the categorial gender/sex gap in participation matters independently of agentic/masculine traits and communal/feminine traits but the direction and size of the gap differs depending on the type of engagement considered.

Gender gaps in political attitudes revisited: the conditional influence of non-binary gender on left–right ideology and GAL-TAN opinions

Across surveys and regardless of controls, women in many Western countries are consistently more politically left-leaning than men. More recently, however, innovative measures of non-binary gender identity suggest important heterogeneity in political attitudes within the categories of ‘women’ and ‘men’. Building from this, we study the direct and conditional associations between sex and non-binary gender on two political attitude dimensions: (1) left–right ideology; and (2) green/alternative/liberal versus traditionalist/authoritarian/nationalist opinions. Using a Swedish population-based survey from 2013, we find no evidence that political attitudes vary by non-binary gender identity alone, and only weak evidence that political attitudes vary by sex. However, supporting our conditional hypotheses, we find that gender (non)conformity matters significantly. Specifically, men with many masculine traits and women with many feminine traits stand more to the right and show more traditionalist/authoritarian/nationalist opinions than men and women who are less gender conforming.

Commentary: Gender diversity and adolescent mental health - a reflection on Potter et al. (2020).

Using a multidimensional measure of gender identity for youths, Potter and colleagues elegantly investigated the prevalence of gender diversity and associated mental health problems in a large sample of young adolescents. The authors address an important need of studies within the behavioral and medical sciences to consider more carefully variations in a person's subjective experience of gender. Their study shows that individual differences in gender identity significantly relate to adolescent mental health problems. Moreover, findings of the current study, and future follow-up assessments of the ABCD cohort, will, hopefully, add important quantitative, empirical data to the controversial discussions on gender identity development and gender diversity in childhood and adolescence (Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 59, 2018, 1244; Pediatric gender identity, 2020, Cham, Switzerland: Springer International; International Journal of Transgenderism, 19, 2018, 225).