Measurements Of Density Fluctuations Research Articles

A Fixed Frequency Reflectometer to Measure Density Fluctuations at Aditya Tokamak

Amongst modern diagnostics of fusion plasmas, microwave methods, both passive and active, play an important role. Microwave Reflectometer is used to measure the plasma density and its fluctuations in fusion research device like tokamak. A fixed frequency (O – mode) microwave reflectometer at 22 GHz (cut – off density nc = 6 × 1012 cm-3) has been designed, developed and used to measure the critical density layer and its fluctuations in Aditya tokamak. It can measure the plasma density fluctuations from r = 11 to 22 cm for central electron density 7.5 × 1012 cm-3 and more, respectively. The output signal of reflectometer is analyzed and compared with the density measurement from the microwave interferometer. When the density measured by interferometer is constant, then the fluctuations of local density are seen from the reflectometer signal. Analysis of initial results show that density fluctuation at r = 21 cm in the main plasma has correlation time of about 8 μsec and frequency spectrum is broad. Use of 22 GHz incident wave allows the observation of density fluctuation with wave number in the range of 0 – 9.2 cm-1 from the reflecting region at the receiving horn. Radial variation of the fluctuation level is observed from 5% to 22% for minor radius 11 to 22 cm, respectively.

Multi-point measurement using two-channel reflectometer with antenna switching for study of high-frequency fluctuations in GAMMA 10.

A two-channel microwave reflectometer system with fast microwave antenna switching capability was developed and applied to the GAMMA 10 tandem mirror device to study high-frequency small-amplitude fluctuations in a hot mirror plasma. The fast switching of the antennas is controlled using PIN diode switches, which offers the significant advantage of reducing the number of high-cost microwave components and digitizers with high bandwidths and large memory that are required to measure the spatiotemporal behavior of the high-frequency fluctuations. The use of two channels rather than one adds the important function of a simultaneous two-point measurement in either the radial direction or the direction of the antenna array to measure the phase profile of the fluctuations along with the normal amplitude profile. The density fluctuations measured using this system clearly showed the high-frequency coherent fluctuations that are associated with Alfvén-ion-cyclotron (AIC) waves in GAMMA 10. A correlation analysis applied to simultaneously measured density fluctuations showed that the phase component that was included in a reflected microwave provided both high coherence and a clear phase difference for the AIC waves, while the amplitude component showed neither significant coherence nor clear phase difference. The axial phase differences of the AIC waves measured inside the hot plasma confirmed the formation of a standing wave structure. The axial variation of the radial profiles was evaluated and a clear difference was found among the AIC waves for the first time, which would be a key to clarify the unknown boundary conditions of the AIC waves.

Magnetic field pitch angle and perpendicular velocity measurements from multi-point time-delay estimation of poloidal correlation reflectometry

In fusion machines, turbulent eddies are expected to be aligned with the direction of the magnetic field lines and to propagate in the perpendicular direction. Time delay measurements of density fluctuations can be used to calculate the magnetic field pitch angle α and perpendicular velocity profiles. The method is applied to poloidal correlation reflectometry installed at ASDEX Upgrade and TEXTOR, which measure density fluctuations from poloidally and toroidally separated antennas. Validation of the method is achieved by comparing the perpendicular velocity (composed of the drift and the phase velocity of turbulence ) with Doppler reflectometry measurements and with neoclassical calculations. An important condition for the application of the method is the presence of turbulence with a sufficiently long decorrelation time. It is shown that at the shear layer the decorrelation time is reduced, limiting the application of the method. The magnetic field pitch angle measured by this method shows the expected dependence on the magnetic field, plasma current and radial position. The profile of the pitch angle reproduces the expected shape and values. However, comparison with the equilibrium reconstruction code cliste suggests an additional inclination of turbulent eddies at the pedestal position (2–3°). This additional angle decreases towards the core and at the edge.

A molecular Rayleigh scattering setup to measure density fluctuations in thermal boundary layers

A Rayleigh scattering-based density fluctuation measurement system was set up inside a low-speed wind tunnel of NASA Ames Research Center. The immediate goal was to study the thermal boundary layer on a heated flat plate. A large number of obstacles had to be overcome to set up the system, such as the removal of dust particles using air filters, the use of photoelectron counting electronics to measure low intensity light, an optical layout to minimize stray light contamination, the reduction in tunnel vibration, and an expanded calibration process to relate photoelectron arrival rate to air density close to the plate surface. To measure spectra of turbulent density fluctuations, a two-PMT cross-correlation system was used to minimize the shot noise floor. To validate the Rayleigh measurements, temperature fluctuations spectra were calculated from density spectra and then compared with temperature spectra measured with a cold-wire probe operated in constant current mode. The spectra from the downstream half of the plate were found to be in good agreement with cold-wire probe, whereas spectra from the leading edge differed. Various lessons learnt are discussed. It is believed that the present effort is the first measurement of density fluctuations spectra in a boundary layer flow.

Beam emission spectroscopy with radially and poloidally elongated optical sightlines.

Beam emission spectroscopy is widely used as local density fluctuation measurement of fusion plasmas. We have installed a beam emission spectroscopy system in the large helical device (LHD) with radially and poloidally elongated optical configuration to enhance both signal-to-noise ratio and wavenumber sensitivity in radial and poloidal directions. The calculation considering the integral effect of the line of sight showed the radially and poloidally elongated sightlines have increased sensitivity compared with the square shaped bundle design of the same sampling area.

Simultaneous measurement of magnetic and density fluctuations via cross-polarization scattering and Doppler backscattering on the DIII-D tokamak.

An upgraded cross-polarization scattering (CPS) system for the simultaneous measurement of internal magnetic fluctuations B̃ and density fluctuations ñ is presented. The system has eight radial quadrature channels acquired simultaneously with an eight-channel Doppler backscattering system (measures density fluctuations ñ and flows). 3-D ray tracing calculations based on the GENRAY ray tracing code are used to illustrate the scattering and geometric considerations involved in the CPS implementation on DIII-D. A unique quasi-optical design and IF electronics system allow direct comparison of B̃ and ñ during dynamic or transient plasma events (e.g., Edge Localized Modes or ELMs, L to H-mode transitions, etc.). The system design allows the interesting possibility of both magnetic-density (B̃-ñ) fluctuation and magnetic-temperature (B̃-T̃) fluctuation cross-phase measurements suitable for detailed tests of turbulence simulations.

Multi-channel poloidal correlation reflectometry on experimental advanced superconducting tokamak.

A new multi-channel poloidal correlation reflectometry is developed at Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak. Eight dielectric resonator oscillators with frequencies of 12.5 GHz, 13.5 GHz, 14.5 GHz, 15 GHz, 15.5 GHz, 16 GHz, 17 GHz, and 18 GHz are used as sources. Signals from the sources are up-converted to V band using active quadruplers and then coupled together. The output waves are launched by one single antenna after passing through a 20 dB directional coupler which can provide the reference signal. Two poloidally separated antennae are installed to receive the reflected waves from plasma. The reference and reflected signals are down-converted by mixing with a quadrupled signal from a phase-locked source with a frequency of 14.2 GHz and the IF signals pass through the filter bank. The resulting signals from the mixers are detected by I/Q demodulators. The setup enables the measurement of density fluctuation at 8 (radial) × 2 (poloidal) spatial points. A coherent mode with an increasing velocity from 50 kHz to 100 kHz is observed by using the system. The mode is located in the steep gradient region of the pedestal.

Far-forward collective scattering measurements by FIR polarimeter-interferometer on J-TEXT tokamak.

The multi-channel three-wave polarimeter-interferometer system on J-TEXT tokamak has been exploited to measure far-forward collective scattering from electron density fluctuations. The diagnostic utilizes far infrared lasers operated at 432 μm with 17-channel vertical chords (3 cm chord spacing), covering the entire cross section of plasma. Scattering laser power is measured using a high-sensitivity Schottky planar diode mixer which can also detect polarimetric and interferometric phase simultaneously. The system provides a line-integrated measurement of density fluctuations with maximum measurable wave number: k⊥max ≤ 2 cm-1 and time response up to 350 kHz. Feasibility of the diagnostic has been tested, showing higher sensitivity to detect fluctuation than interferometric measurement. Capability of providing spatial-resolved information of fluctuation has also been demonstrated in preliminary experimental applications.

A high speed compact microwave interferometer for density fluctuation measurements in Sino-UNIted Spherical Tokamak.

A single-channel 3 mm interferometer has been developed for plasma density diagnostics in the Sino-UNIted Spherical Tokamak (SUNIST). The extremely compact microwave interferometer utilizes one corrugated feed horn antenna for both emitting and receiving the microwave. The beam path lies on the equatorial plane so the system would not suffer from beam path deflection problems due to the symmetry of the cross section. A focusing lens group and an oblique vacuum window are carefully designed to boost the signal to noise ratio, which allows this system to show good performance even with the small-diameter central column itself as a reflector, without a concave mirror. The whole system discards the reference leg for maximum compactness, which is particularly suitable for the small-sized tokamak. An auto-correcting algorithm is developed to calculate the phase evolution, and the result displays good phase stability of the whole system. The intermediate frequency is adjustable and can reach its full potential of 2 MHz for best temporal resolution. Multiple measurements during ohmic discharges proved the interferometer's capability to track typical density fluctuations in SUNIST, which enables this system to be utilized in the study of MHD activities.

Characterization of an incipiently separated shock wave/turbulent boundary layer interaction

The turbulence structure in a shock wave/turbulent boundary layer interaction at incipient separation was investigated in order to get insight into turbulence generation and amplification mechanisms in such flow fields. The flow along a two-dimensional $$11.5^{\circ }$$ compression corner was studied experimentally at a Mach number of $$M=2.53$$ and with a momentum-thickness Reynolds number of $$\mathrm{Re}_{\theta }=5370$$ . From hot-wire boundary layer traverses and surface heat-flux density fluctuation measurements with the fast-response atomic layer thermopile, the turbulence structure and amplification was described. Space–time correlations of the mass-flux fluctuations across the boundary layer and the surface heat-flux density fluctuations were measured to further characterize the development of the turbulence structure across the interaction. The large-scale boundary layer structures are concealed by shock-related effects in the strongly disturbed shock-foot region. Shortly downstream, however, large-scale structures dominate the signal again, just as in the incoming flow. A mechanism explaining this behavior is suggested.

Optics System Design of Microwave Imaging Reflectometry for the EAST Tokamak**supported by the National Magnetic Confinement Fusion Energy Program of China (Nos. 2009GB107001 and 2014GB109002)

A front-end optics system has been developed for the EAST microwave imaging reflectometry for 2D density fluctuation measurement. Via the transmitter optics system, a combination of eight transmitter beams with independent frequencies is employed to illuminate wide poloidal regions on eight distinct cutoff layers. The receiver optics collect the reflected wavefront and project them onto the vertical detector array with 12 antennas. Utilizing optimized Field Curvature adjustment lenses in the receiver optics, the front-end optics system provides a flexible and perfect matching between the image plane and a specified cutoff layer in the plasma, which ensures the correct data interpretation of density fluctuation measurement.

Design of a collective scattering system for small scale turbulence study in Korea Superconducting Tokamak Advanced Research.

The design characteristics of a multi-channel collective (or coherent) scattering system for small scale turbulence study in Korea Superconducting Tokamak Advanced Research (KSTAR), which is planned to be installed in 2017, are given in this paper. A few critical issues are discussed in depth such as the Faraday and Cotton-Mouton effects on the beam polarization, radial spatial resolution, probe beam frequency, polarization, and power. A proper and feasible optics with the 300 GHz probe beam, which was designed based on these issues, provides a simultaneous measurement of electron density fluctuations at four discrete poloidal wavenumbers up to 24 cm(-1). The upper limit corresponds to the normalized wavenumber kθρe of ∼0.15 in nominal KSTAR plasmas. To detect the scattered beam power and extract phase information, a quadrature detection system consisting of four-channel antenna/detector array and electronics will be employed.

First electron density fluctuation measurement via the HCOOH laser far-forward collective scattering on HL-2A tokamak

Based on the fact that the scattered power is proportional to the square of the electron density fluctuation amplitude, the four-channel formic acid (HCOOH, λ=432.5 um) laser interferometer has been firstly upgraded to measure the far-forward collective scattering (FCS) from the electron density fluctuation (ñe) on HL-2A tokamak in 2014–15 experimental campaign. The HCOOH-FCS system provides the line-integrated measurement of fluctuations covering the wavenumber range: k⊥ <1.6 cm−1 (perpendicular to the magnetic field). A lot of electron density fluctuations have been successfully measured by the HCOOH-FCS. In especial, the high-frequency density fluctuation (up to 500 kHz) induced by the core-localized Alfvénic eigenmode (AE) has been observed by the innermost scattering chord. The HCOOH-FCS system will be extremely helpful for the research of energetic particles instability on HL-2A.

Measurements of ICRF wave-induced density fluctuations in LHD by a microwave reflectometer

An O-mode microwave reflectometer has been developed to measure ICRF wave induced electron density fluctuations in LHD plasmas. The system has two probing frequencies (28.8 and 30.1 GHz) to measure two spatial points simultaneously. The rms density fluctuation levels are typically 0.01%. The linearity between the measured density fluctuation amplitude and the square root of the RF power is discussed. The decay length of the RF field was estimated to be 1 to 7 m under the operational condition investigated. A typical spatial distance between the two measurement points corresponding to the two probing frequencies is a few centimeters, and the fluctuation amplitudes at the two points are similar in amplitude. The phase difference between the two fluctuations show in-phase relationship on average. Out-of phase relationships, which implies a standing wave structure, are often observed when the wave absorption is expected to be poor.

Stabilization of electron-scale turbulence by electron density gradient in national spherical torus experiment

Theory and experiments have shown that electron temperature gradient (ETG) turbulence on the electron gyro-scale, k⊥ρe ≲ 1, can be responsible for anomalous electron thermal transport in NSTX. Electron scale (high-k) turbulence is diagnosed in NSTX with a high-k microwave scattering system [D. R. Smith et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 79, 123501 (2008)]. Here we report on stabilization effects of the electron density gradient on electron-scale density fluctuations in a set of neutral beam injection heated H-mode plasmas. We found that the absence of high-k density fluctuations from measurements is correlated with large equilibrium density gradient, which is shown to be consistent with linear stabilization of ETG modes due to the density gradient using the analytical ETG linear threshold in F. Jenko et al. [Phys. Plasmas 8, 4096 (2001)] and linear gyrokinetic simulations with GS2 [M. Kotschenreuther et al., Comput. Phys. Commun. 88, 128 (1995)]. We also found that the observed power of electron-scale turbulence (when it exists) is anti-correlated with the equilibrium density gradient, suggesting density gradient as a nonlinear stabilizing mechanism. Higher density gradients give rise to lower values of the plasma frame frequency, calculated based on the Doppler shift of the measured density fluctuations. Linear gyrokinetic simulations show that higher values of the electron density gradient reduce the value of the real frequency, in agreement with experimental observation. Nonlinear electron-scale gyrokinetic simulations show that high electron density gradient reduces electron heat flux and stiffness, and increases the ETG nonlinear threshold, consistent with experimental observations.

Intermediate-k density and magnetic field fluctuations during inter-ELM pedestal evolution in MAST

Measurements of local density and magnetic field fluctuations near the pedestal top, conditionally averaged over the edge localized mode (ELM) cycle, have been made in Mega Amp Spherical Tokamak (MAST). A Doppler backscattering (DBS) system installed at MAST was used to measure intermediate-k density fluctuations at the top of the pedestal. A novel diagnostic technique combining DBS with cross-polarization scattering (CP-DBS) enabled magnetic field fluctuations to also be locally measured at similar wave numbers. Polarization isolation and other effects for CP-DBS are discussed. Both measurements were used in a series of high-β –4.5) MAST plasmas with large type-I ELMs with an period where microtearing modes (MTMs) had been predicted to be unstable in similar conditions (Dickinson 2012 Phys. Rev. Lett. 108 135002). The measured density fluctuation level increased by a factor of about 4 between 2 and 4 ms after the ELM, which was correlated with the recovery of the density profile while the temperature pedestal height continued to increase slowly. Magnetic field fluctuations showed different temporal behaviors, slowly increasing throughout the ELM cycle as the local β increased. Linear GS2 calculations show both MTM and electron temperature gradient (ETG) modes unstable at similar wave numbers as the measurements (although with more overlap between ETG wave numbers and diagnostic spectral resolution) at the top of the pedestal, along with kinetic ballooning modes are unstable lower in the pedestal (at larger wavelengths). The inferred ratio of fluctuation levels from experiment was . The comparable ratios from GS2 were for the MTM and for the ETG. Both the experimental wave number range and the fluctuation ratio are more similar to the linear characteristics of the ETG than the MTM. These results imply that intermediate-k fluctuations due to the ETG play a role in inter-ELM pedestal evolution.

Analysis of Measured Flame Transfer Functions With Locally Resolved Density Fluctuation and OH-Chemiluminescence Data

The goal of this study is to analyze flame transfer functions (FTFs) locally by quantifying the heat release rate with OH*-chemiluminescence and density fluctuation measurements using laser vibrometry. In this study, both techniques are applied to a swirl burner configuration with known FTFs acquired by multimicrophone-method (MMM) measurements for perfectly premixed and partially premixed cases. The planar fields of the quantities are compared to the FTFs in order to improve the understanding regarding the specific amplitude and phase values. On the global scale values of heat release expected from the MMM are satisfactorily reproduced by both methods for the premixed cases, whereas OH*-chemiluminescence data cannot be used as indicator for heat release in the partially premixed case, where equivalence ratio fluctuations are present. Vibrometry is not affected by fluctuations of equivalence ratio but additionally reveals the periodic oscillation of the conical annular jet of the cold reactants in the combustor filled with hot products.

Measurement of density fluctuations using digital holographic interferometry in a standing wave thermoacoustic oscillator

This paper describes an optical set-up for measuring density fluctuations associated to acoustic oscillations in a thermoacoustic prime-mover. A time-resolved, full-field holographic interferometry technique is used, which enables to measure the optical phase difference between a reference beam and a probe beam passing through the acoustic resonator. The paper first presents the experimental set-up and the processing of holograms from which the instantaneous variations of the gas density along the line of sight of the probe beam are obtained. Then, the measurement technique is applied to the analysis of density fluctuations in the neighborhood of the heated side of a stack in a standing wave thermoacoustic prime mover during the transient regime of wave amplitude growth. The experimental results reveal that there exists very significant entrance effects, which lead to the generation of higher harmonics as well as mean (time-averaged) mass rarefaction in the vicinity of the stack termination. Finally, a short discussion is provided, based on a simplified modeling of higher harmonics generation in temperature associated to the oscillations of an inviscid gas through the stack, but the model fails in explaining the magnitude of the phenomena observed.

Inversion methods for the measurements of MHD-like density fluctuations by Heavy Ion Beam Diagnostic

We report here on the recent developments in the deconvolution of the path integral effects for the study of MHD pressure-like fluctuations measured by Heavy Ion Beam Diagnostic. In particular, we develop improved methods to account for and remove the path integral effect on the determination of the ionization generation factors, including the double ionization of the primary beam. We test the method using the HIBD simulation code which computes the real beam trajectories and attenuations due to electron impact ionization for any selected synthetic profiles of plasma current, plasma potential, electron temperature and density. Simulations have shown the numerical method to be highly effective in ISTTOK within an overall accuracy of a few percent (< 3%). The method here presented can effectively reduce the path integral effects and may serve as the basis to develop improved retrieving techniques for plasma devices working even in higher density ranges. The method is applied to retrieve the time evolution and spatial structure of m=1 and m=2 modes. The 2D MHD mode-like structure is reconstructed by means of a spatial projection of all 1D measurements obtained during one full rotation of the mode.A shorter version of this contribution is due to be published in PoS at: 1st EPS conference on Plasma Diagnostics

Radial and poloidal correlation reflectometry on Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak.

An X-mode polarized V band (50 GHz-75 GHz) radial and poloidal correlation reflectometry is designed and installed on Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST). Two frequency synthesizers (12 GHz-19 GHz) are used as sources. Signals from the sources are up-converted to V band using active quadruplers and then coupled together for launching through one single pyramidal antenna. Two poloidally separated antennae are installed to receive the reflected waves from plasma. This reflectometry system can be used for radial and poloidal correlation measurement of the electron density fluctuation. In ohmically heated plasma, the radial correlation length is about 1.5 cm measured by the system. The poloidal correlation analysis provides a means to estimate the fluctuation velocity perpendicular to the main magnetic field. In the present paper, the distance between two poloidal probing points is calculated with ray-tracing code and the propagation time is deduced from cross-phase spectrum. Fluctuation velocity perpendicular to the main magnetic field in the core of ohmically heated plasma is about from -1 km/s to -3 km/s.