Cognitive Load Measurement Research Articles

Revealing Unconscious Consumer Reactions to Advertisements That Include Visual Metaphors. A Neurophysiological Experiment.

The main challenge of advertising is to catch consumers’ attention and evoke in them positive attitudes to consequently achieve product preference and higher purchase intentions. In modern advertising, visual metaphors are widely used due to their effects such as improving advertising recall, enhancing persuasiveness, and generating consumers’ positive attitudes. Previous research has pointed out the existence of an “inverted U-curve” that describes a positive relationship between the conceptual complexity of metaphors and consumers’ positive reactions to them, which ends where complexity outweighs comprehension. Despite the dominance of visual metaphors in modern advertising, academic research on this topic has been relatively sparse. The inverted U-curve pattern has been validated regarding ad appreciation, ad liking, and purchase intention by using declarative methods. However, at present, there is no evidence of consumers’ neurophysiological responses to visual metaphors included in advertising. Given this gap, the aim of this research is to assess consumer neurophysiological responses to print advertisements that include visual metaphors, using neuroscience-based techniques. Forty-three participants (22W–21M) were exposed to 28 stimuli according to three levels of visual complexity, while their reactions were recorded with an electroencephalogram (EEG), eye tracking (ET), and galvanic skin response (GSR). The results indicated that, regardless of metaphor type, ads with metaphors evoke more positive reactions than non-metaphor ads. EEG results revealed a positive relationship between cognitive load and conceptual complexity that is not mediated by comprehension. This suggests that the cognitive load index could be a suitable indicator of complexity, as it reflects the amount of cognitive resources needed to process stimuli. ET results showed significant differences in the time dedicated to exploring the ads; however, comprehension doesn’t mediate this relationship. Moreover, no cognitive load was detected from GSR. ET and GSR results suggest that neither methodology is a suitable measure of cognitive load in the case of visual metaphors. Instead, it seems that they are more related to the attention and/or emotion devoted to the stimuli. Our empirical analysis reveals the importance of using neurophysiological measures to analyze the appropriate use of visual metaphors and to find out how to maximize their impact on advertising effectiveness.

MP22: Using galvanic skin response to identify resuscitation expertise in a pulmonary embolism simulation exercise

Introduction: As physicians gain expertise in clinical settings, they are able to handle progressively more information, in both complexity and magnitude, as an organized schema. Expert physicians then, will be more likely to function with less cognitive load —the amount of mental effort someone exerts within their short-term working memory. Expert physicians will also retain more working memory capacity to process information during medical emergencies than novice physicians. While a physician's ability to process medical information may have implications for handling medical emergencies, there is a paucity of empirical research examining the link between physicians’ expertise and biometric measures of cognitive load. Using galvanic skin response (GSR) as a surrogate measure of cognitive load, we assess whether average cognitive load differs significantly between expert and novice physicians in a pulmonary embolism simulation exercise. Methods: We analyzed GSR data (n = 39) from a 10-minute simulated pulmonary embolism exercise among 18 faculty physicians and 21 residents. Cluster and factor analyses were used to identify novice, intermediate, advanced, and expert physicians with based on participants’ GRS scores. One-way ANOVA was used to analyze group differences. Descriptive statistical techniques were also used to describe the distribution of GRS expertise by participants’ level of training. Results: Contrary to expectation, we found more than two groups of resuscitation expertise in the simulation exercise. Respectively, we identified 7.7% and 20.5% of participants as novice and expert physicians. About 36% of participants were classified as intermediate (35.9%) physicians while another 36% were classified as having an advanced (35.9%) expertise in resuscitation. All the novice physicians identified were found to be PGY1 and PGY2 resident residents. A third (33.3%) of faculty physicians and 9.5% of residents were identified as experts. As expected, average GSR score for experts (x¯ = 0.60μS, SD = 0.26) was significantly (F = 137.6, p < 0.001) lower than the average GSR for novices (x¯ = 5.55μS, SD = 0.99), intermediate (x¯ = 2.84 μS, SD = 0.40), and advanced (x¯ = 1.57 μS, SD = 0.28) physicians. Conclusion: GSR measures of cognitive load may be used to identify resuscitation expertise in managing pulmonary embolism and related medical conditions through simulation exercises.

Psychophysiologic measures of cognitive load in physician team leaders during trauma resuscitation

In the high-paced and dynamic clinical setting of an emergency department, a physician's ability to manage mental resources and mitigate the effects of cognitive overload is critical to patient safety. Although the ability to regulate cognitive assets during crises is seen as the hallmark of expertise in a resuscitation setting, the specific psychological strategies used by these domain experts and the patterns of their expression remain unknown. This study aims to combine traditional cognitive load rating scales with physiologic data from newer wearable devices to measure cognitive state of physician team leaders during real-life resuscitations. Eye-tracking, galvanic skin response, and heart rate measures were captured from five expert physicians during five trauma resuscitations. Physiologic measures were correlated with psychometric scores collected using a cued-recall debriefing protocol. Results varied between participants and trials; overall, skin conductance response amplitude and frequency and eye tracking metrics showed the strongest correlation to Paas scores. Regression analysis revealed that a quadratic model is more representative of the psychometric-physiologic relationship than a linear model for most measures. The findings of this experiment support existing evidence that multiple physiologic measures should be employed to most accurately measure cognitive load in a real-world setting.

LO77: Performance enhancing psychological skills in clinical simulation

Introduction: Clinical simulations in are designed to evoke feelings of stress and uncertainty in order to mimic challenges that learners will face in the real world. When not managed properly, these sources of extraneous cognitive load cause a burden on working memory, leading to a hindered ability to acquire new information. The “Beat the Stress Fool” (BTSF) protocol is a performance-enhancing tool designed to reduce cognitive overload during acute care scenarios. It involves breathing exercises, positive self-talk, visualization, and deliberate articulations. This study aims to validate the BTSF protocol as a method for reducing cognitive load using both psychometric and physiologic measures. Methods: Data collection took place during the Queen's University “Nightmares-FM” course. This clinical simulation program involves team-based scenarios designed to teach the fundamentals of acute care to first-year family medicine residents. Participants were divided equally into experimental and control groups based on pre-existing cohorts. Participants completed a baseline state-trait anxiety inventory and a demographics survey. The experimental group was guided through the BTSF protocol prior to each of 16 simulations; in both groups, physiologic and psychometric cognitive load measurements were collected for the alternating team leader. Galvanic skin response (GSR) and heart rate (HR) were collected during a 15-second baseline and throughout each simulation using a Shimmer 3 GSR+ wearable sensor. Self-reported cognitive load was assessed after each scenario using the 9-point Paas scale. Results: The mean Paas scores for the BTSF group were significantly lower than the control group (6.2 vs 6.9, p < 0.05), indicating lower subjective cognitive load. GSR signal magnitude (p = 0.086), spike amplitude (p = 0.066), and spike density (p = 0.584) were also lower in the BTSF group. There was no difference in HR between groups. There was not a significant correlation between self-reported cognitive load and the normalized physiologic measures. Conclusion: The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the BTSF protocol in lowering the amount of perceived mental effort required to perform clinical simulation tasks. These findings were mirrored in the galvanic skin response signal, though our study was likely underpowered for significance. This is the first study to validate a proof-of-concept for the BTSF protocol in learners during simulated training.

Converging Subjective and Psychophysiological Measures of Cognitive Load to Study the Effects of Instructor‐Present Video

ABSTRACTMany online videos feature an instructor on the screen to improve learners' engagement; however, the influence of this design on learners' cognitive load is underexplored. This study investigates the effects of instructor presence on learners' processing of information using both subjective and psychophysiological measures of cognitive load. Sixty university students watched a statistics instructional video either with or without instructor presence, while the spontaneous electrical activity of their brain was recorded using electroencephalography (EEG). At the conclusion of the video, they also self‐reported overall load, intrinsic load, extraneous load, and germane load they experienced during the video. Learning from the video was assessed via tests of retention and transfer. Results suggested the instructor‐present video improved learners' ability to transfer information and was associated with a lower self‐reported intrinsic and extraneous load. Event‐related changes in theta band activity also indicated lower cognitive load with instructor‐present video.

Pilot Feasibility Study Examining Pupillary Response During Driving Simulation as a Measure of Cognitive Load in Breast Cancer Survivors.

To test the feasibility of adding driving simulation tasks to measure visuospatial ability and processing speed to an existing neurocognitive battery for breast cancer survivors (BCSs). 38 BCSs and 17 healthy controls from a cross-sectional pilot study conducted at the University of Kansas Medical Center. Exploratory substudy measuring pupillary response, visuospatial ability, and processing speed during two 10-minute driving simulations (with or without n-back testing) in a sample of BCSs with self-reported cognitive complaints and healthy controls. Feasibility of measurement of pupillary response during driving simulation was demonstrated. No between-group differences were noted for pupillary response during driving simulation. BCSs had greater visuospatial ability and processing speed performance difficulties than healthy controls during driving simulation without n-back testing and slower n-back response time. Preliminary evidence showed a possible link between cancer/treatment on visuospatial ability and processing speed in BCSs.

Do measures of cognitive load explain the spatial split-attention principle in multimedia learning environments? A systematic review.

The spatial split-attention principle suggests that presenting related words and pictures spatially close to one another will improve learning compared with a spatially distant design, and two meta-analyses have shown support for the principle. However, it is not clear why the principle occurs. It has been theorized that integrated graphic designs lower the extraneous cognitive load imposed on learners, however, there has not been a systematic review to examine the evidence for this claim. In this study, we systematically review the literature around the spatial split-attention principle in multimedia learning environments to examine if measures of cognitive load support the theoretical prediction. Our analysis of 41 comparisons found that measures of cognitive load largely do not support the extraneous cognitive load explanation, nor did we find compelling evidence that integrated graphic designs significantly influence any measure of cognitive load compared with spatially distant designs. We propose an alternative explanation for the principle in which integrated graphic designs may facilitate the allocation of germane resources and integrative cognitive processing rather than reduce extraneous cognitive load and discuss a theoretical foundation for testing this hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)

Understanding instructional design effects by differentiated measurement of intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load

Instructional design deals with the optimization of learning processes. To achieve this, three aspects need to be considered: (1) the learning task itself, (2) the design of the learning material, and (3) the activation of the learner’s cognitive processes during learning. Based on Cognitive Load Theory, learners also need to deal with the task itself, the design of the material, and the decision on how much to invest into learning. To link these concepts, and to help instructional designers and teachers, cognitive load during learning needs to be differentially measured. This article reviews studies using a questionnaire to measure intrinsic, extraneous and germane cognitive load in order to provide evidence for the instruments’ prognostic validity. Six exemplary studies from different domains with different variations of the learning material were chosen to show that the theoretically expected effects on different types of load are actually reflected in the learners’ answers in the questionnaire. Major hypotheses regarding the different load types were (1) variations in difficulty are reflected in the scale on intrinsic cognitive load, (2) variations in design are reflected in the scale on extraneous cognitive load, and (3) variations in enhancing deeper learning through activation of cognitive processes are reflected in the scale on germane cognitive load. We found prognostic validity to be good. The review concludes by discussing the practical and theoretical implications, as well as pointing out the limitations and needs for further research.

The Effectiveness of Cognitive Load and Internal Motivation on the Performance in Study Skills

The current study aims to identify the effect of each of the levels of cognitive load and internal motivation and interaction among them on performance in the following study skills (receiving information, understanding information, storing information, and retrieving information). The study’s basic sample consisted of (116) male and female 11 th -grade students in Amman schools in Jordan. The study instruments included the cognitive load measure prepared by Mohammed Neama and Najeh Mamouri, 2015, and developed the researchers, the motivation test for Learning prepared by de Gopal Rao, 2004 and developed by the researchers, and the receiving information measure prepared by Ibrahim Sayed Samadouni, 1990 and developed by the researcher, and the understanding information measure prepared by Yahya Qasem; Fahmy Fadel, 2014 and developed by the researchers), and the storing information measure prepared by Adel Hussein, 2001 and developed by the researchers, in addition to the students' grade point average (GPA) as an indicator for retrieving information. The results found that there is a statistically significant effect of levels of cognitive load on the skill of storing information in favor of the low level. It also shows that there is a statistically significant effect of the levels of internal motivation on the skills of understanding information and storing information in favor of the high level. Besides, it shows that there is a statistically significant interaction of the effect of the cognitive load and the internal motivation on the information retrieving skill in favor of the high cognitive load with the high internal motivation, and the low cognitive load with the low internal motivation. Keywords: information processing methods, cognitive load, internal motivation, study skills. DOI: 10.7176/JEP/11-4-10 Publication date: February 29 th 2020

Prefrontal Brain Electrical Activity and Cognitive Load Analysis Using a Non-linear and Non-Stationary Approach

This study presents an instantaneous spectrum analysis for electroencephalograph data processing that would facilitate the practice of learning and instruction through real-time measurements of the learner's cognitive load. The instantaneous spectrum analysis is derived from the ensemble empirical mode decomposition which decomposes signals into a gathering of intrinsic mode functions without mode mixing. The multi-marginal Hilbert-Huang spectrum is introduced to estimate frequency contents. As a result, the amplitude of brain rhythms related to the cognitive load can be determined accurately. A model study was performed at first to test the efficacy of the proposed algorithm by comparing with the Fourier based technique, then a prefrontal experiment was conducted to show the advantages of the proposed method. With the higher resolution and more realistic of the proposed method relative to conventional spectrum analysis, more significant features of the signal can be extracted. We believe that the proposed method has the potential to be a substantial technique in electroencephalograph data analysis.

EEG & Eye Tracking User Experiments for Spatial Memory Task on Maps

The aim of this research is to evaluate the use of ET and EEG for studying the cognitive processes of expert and novice map users and to explore these processes by comparing two types of spatial memory experiments through cognitive load measurements. The first experiment consisted of single trials and participants were instructed to study a map stimulus without any time constraints in order to draw a sketch map afterwards. According to the ET metrics (i.e., average fixation duration and the number of fixations per second), no statistically significant differences emerged between experts and novices. A similar result was also obtained with EEG Frontal Alpha Asymmetry calculations. On the contrary, in terms of alpha power across all electrodes, novices exhibited significantly lower alpha power, indicating a higher cognitive load. In the second experiment, a larger number of stimuli were used to study the effect of task difficulty. The same ET metrics used in the first experiment indicated that the difference between these user groups was not statistically significant. The cognitive load was also extracted using EEG event-related spectral power changes at alpha and theta frequency bands. Preliminary data exploration mostly suggested an increase in theta power and a decrease in alpha power.

Usability and cognitive load in the design of a personal health record

While personal health records (PHRs) carry an array of potential benefits such as increased patient engagement, poor usability remains a significant barrier to patients’ adoption of PHRs. In this mixed-methods study, we evaluate the usability of an important PHR feature, a patient intake form called the pre-visit summary, from the perspective of cognitive load using real cardiovascular patients in vivo. A validated measure for cognitive load, the NASA Task Load Index, was used along with retrospective interviews to identify tasks within the pre-visit summary that were more mentally challenging for patients. Participants experienced higher cognitive load on the Medications, Immunizations, Active Health Concerns, and Family History pages because these pages required a higher recall of personal health information and due to some user interface design issues. This research is significant because it uses validated measures of cognitive load to study real patients interacting with a PHR in vivo.

The effects of visual distractors on cognitive load in a motor imagery brain-computer interface

A brain-computer interface (BCI) is a system that translates neural activity into a practical output. Its functionality, therefore, depends not only on the computer itself, but also on the cognitive system of the user. Distractors have the potential to capture attention, increase cognitive load, and may therefore impact BCI use. The purpose of the current study is to determine the effects of small visual distractors on the cognitive load of users of a motor imagery-BCI, and to examine whether these distractor-mediated effects can be improved by modifying the task interface. Sixteen typically-developed participants completed two sessions of online motor imagery to control an EEG-BCI, under conditions of no distractors, visual distractors, and cognitive strategies (intended to mitigate cognitive load) amid distractors. Cognitive load for each session was assessed through both a ratio of theta to alpha power and the NASA-Task Load Index (NASA-TLX). Task-irrelevant visual stimuli were found to significantly increase the objective measure of cognitive load, particularly for parietal channels. Subjective cognitive load as indexed by the NASA-TLX was predictive of a decrease in BCI performance for participants with below 0.75 classification accuracy (R2 = 0.32, p < 0.001), which may indicate a differential susceptibility to changes in workload for “low”-performing participants. Quantifying and addressing the increased cognitive load imparted by distractors on BCI users can aid in the future applicability of the technology in real-world settings.

Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability Correlate with Clinical Reasoning Performance and Self-Reported Measures of Cognitive Load

Cognitive load is a key mediator of cognitive processing that may impact clinical reasoning performance. The purpose of this study was to gather biologic validity evidence for correlates of different types of self-reported cognitive load, and to explore the association of self-reported cognitive load and physiologic measures with clinical reasoning performance. We hypothesized that increased cognitive load would manifest evidence of elevated sympathetic tone and would be associated with lower clinical reasoning performance scores. Fifteen medical students wore Holter monitors and watched three videos depicting medical encounters before completing a post-encounter form and standard measures of cognitive load. Correlation analysis was used to investigate the relationship between cardiac measures (mean heart rate, heart rate variability and QT interval variability) and self-reported measures of cognitive load, and their association with clinical reasoning performance scores. Despite the low number of participants, strong positive correlations were found between measures of intrinsic cognitive load and heart rate variability. Performance was negatively correlated with mean heart rate, as well as single-item cognitive load measures. Our data signify a possible role for using physiologic monitoring for identifying individuals experiencing high cognitive load and those at risk for performing poorly during clinical reasoning tasks.

Note-taking format and difficulty impact learning from instructor-provided lecture notes.

The method students use to take notes impacts how they process lecture information. The current experiment examined how the format and amount of content included in instructor-provided notes affect learning. Undergraduate students listened to a brief audio-recorded science lecture that emphasised independent facts, while using one of four note-taking guides. These guides varied in their format (outline notes, cloze notes) and level of difficulty (less-difficult, more-difficult). Outline notes included a partially complete organisational framework, promoting knowledge of relationships among concepts. Cloze notes included all lecture content with select words missing, encouraging processing of specific details. Metacognitive ratings and an objective cognitive load measure confirmed that outline note-taking was the most difficult method. However, outline notes led to higher performance than cloze notes on free recall and inference questions, and equal performance on verbatim questions. These benefits were greatest in the more-difficult outline notes condition, when less information was provided. These findings are consistent with the material-appropriate difficulty framework. Increasing note-taking difficulty was desirable, but only when the activity elicited semantic processing that complemented the type of processing afforded by the learning material.

Time-on-task as a Measure of Cognitive Load in TBLT

Recent studies in task-based research have increasingly implemented ways to measure cognitive load in order to ensure that the tasks that were intended to be more complex placed greater cognitive load onto the learner, which in turn would lead to systematic changes in outcome measures. This study aims to introduce a more objective, indirect measure of cognitive load: time-on-task. In this study, 42 native speakers of English carried out three types of oral tasks that each had three levels of task complexity, operationalized as the number of elements. Cognitive load was measured by learner self-ratings, prospective time estimations, the dual task methodology, and time-on-task. Results of a series of correlational analyses and repeated-measures ANOVA showed that time-on-task, which can further be divided into time-on-planning and time-on-speech, proved to be a valid measure of cognitive load.

Usage of Augmented Reality Glasses in Automotive Industry: Age-Related Effects on Cognitive Load

With the development of technology, augmented reality (AR) devices were introduced in many areas. One of these devices, AR glasses, is more convenient and easy to fulfil and still continuing to evolve. The AR glasses, which are frequently used in sectors such as education, entertainment, construction and automotive, bring many research areas. In this article, the cognitive load that AR glasses bring to the users who is working on an assembly line has been investigated. Cognitive load refers to the resources used by working memory in the brain. This study was carried out with healthy participants in the assembly line of an automotive manufacturing factory and 60 tests were performed for measurement. Effect of the AR glasses for participants under 35 and over 35 years of age was measured by electroencephalography (EEG). EEG is a common objective technique used in cognitive load measurements. EEG data collected were examined and no significant difference was observed between participants of under and over 35 years of age. When compared with the data obtained in the experiments without glasses, it was seen that the use of the AR glasses in assembly lines of automotive manufacturing factories did not create an additional cognitive load. It can be seen from the article that AR glasses did not have an age-related effect and can be use in the automotive manufacturing industry.

Evaluating information-theoretic measures of word prediction in naturalistic sentence reading

We review information-theoretic measures of cognitive load during sentence processing that have been used to quantify word prediction effort. Two such measures, surprisal and next-word entropy, suffer from shortcomings when employed for a predictive processing view. We propose a novel metric, lookahead information gain, that can overcome these short-comings. We estimate the different measures using probabilistic language models. Subsequently, we put them to the test by analysing how well the estimated measures predict human processing effort in three data sets of naturalistic sentence reading. Our results replicate the well known effect of surprisal on word reading effort, but do not indicate a role of next-word entropy or lookahead information gain. Our computational results suggest that, in a predictive processing system, the costs of predicting may outweigh the gains. This idea poses a potential limit to the value of a predictive mechanism for the processing of language. The result illustrates the unresolved problem of finding estimations of word-by-word prediction that, first, are truly independent of perceptual processing of the to-be-predicted words, second, are statistically reliable predictors of experimental data, and third, can be derived from more general assumptions about the cognitive processes involved.

Effects of Age and Hearing Loss on the Recognition of Emotions in Speech.

Emotional communication is a cornerstone of social cognition and informs human interaction. Previous studies have shown deficits in facial and vocal emotion recognition in older adults, particularly for negative emotions. However, few studies have examined combined effects of aging and hearing loss on vocal emotion recognition by adults. The objective of this study was to compare vocal emotion recognition in adults with hearing loss relative to age-matched peers with normal hearing. We hypothesized that age would play a role in emotion recognition and that listeners with hearing loss would show deficits across the age range. Thirty-two adults (22 to 74 years of age) with mild to severe, symmetrical sensorineural hearing loss, amplified with bilateral hearing aids and 30 adults (21 to 75 years of age) with normal hearing, participated in the study. Stimuli consisted of sentences spoken by 2 talkers, 1 male, 1 female, in 5 emotions (angry, happy, neutral, sad, and scared) in an adult-directed manner. The task involved a single-interval, five-alternative forced-choice paradigm, in which the participants listened to individual sentences and indicated which of the five emotions was targeted in each sentence. Reaction time was recorded as an indirect measure of cognitive load. Results showed significant effects of age. Older listeners had reduced accuracy, increased reaction times, and reduced d' values. Normal hearing listeners showed an Age by Talker interaction where older listeners had more difficulty identifying male vocal emotion. Listeners with hearing loss showed reduced accuracy, increased reaction times, and lower d' values compared with age-matched normal-hearing listeners. Within the group with hearing loss, age and talker effects were significant, and low-frequency pure-tone averages showed a marginally significant effect. Contrary to other studies, once hearing thresholds were taken into account, no effects of listener sex were observed, nor were there effects of individual emotions on accuracy. However, reaction times and d' values showed significant differences between individual emotions. The results of this study confirm existing findings in the literature showing that older adults show significant deficits in voice emotion recognition compared with their normally hearing peers, and that among listeners with normal hearing, age-related changes in hearing do not predict this age-related deficit. The present results also add to the literature by showing that hearing impairment contributes additionally to deficits in vocal emotion recognition, separate from deficits related to age. These effects of age and hearing loss appear to be quite robust, being evident in reduced accuracy scores and d' measures, as well as in reaction time measures.

Objective Measurements of Cognitive Load in Complex Problem Solving

Objective Measurements of Cognitive Load in Complex Problem Solving