Measurement Of Blood Lead Levels Research Articles

House Sparrows as Sentinels of Childhood Lead Exposure.

Our understanding of connections between human and animal health has advanced substantially since the canary was introduced as a sentinel of toxic conditions in coal mines. Nonetheless, the development of wildlife sentinels for monitoring human exposure to toxins has been limited. Here, we capitalized on a three-decade long child blood lead monitoring program to demonstrate that the globally ubiquitous and human commensal house sparrow (Passer domesticus) can be used as a sentinel of human health risks in urban environments impacted by lead mining. We showed that sparrows are a viable proxy for the measurement of blood lead levels in children at a neighborhood scale (0.28 km2). In support of the generalizability of this approach, the blood lead relationship established in our focal mining city enabled us to accurately predict elevated blood lead levels in children from another mining city using only sparrows from the second location. Using lead concentrations and lead isotopic compositions from environmental and biological matrices, we identified shared sources and pathways of lead exposure in sparrows and children, with strong links to contamination from local mining emissions. Our findings showed how human commensal species can be used to identify and predict human health risks over time and space.

Hubungan Jenis Pestisida Berdasarkan Kandungan Senyawa Aktif yang Digunakan terhadap Kadar Timbal (Pb) dalam Darah Petani di Kabupaten Bangka

Farmers exposed to pesticides. It can cause pollution and residues. Pesticides contain Plumbum (Pb). Pb can effect to the hematopoietic, digestive, urinary, kidney, central nervous, reproductive, cardiac and endocrine systems. The purpose was to determine the relationship between types of pesticides based on the active compounds used on Pb levels in the farmers blood in Bangka district. This research is analytic observational with cross sectional approach. The subjects were 20 farmers exposed to pesticides and with criteria based on the questionnaire in Bangka district. Use quota sampling. Primary data, namely measurement of blood lead levels using the Inductively Coupled Plasma - Mass Spectrophotometry (ICP-MS) method and types of pesticides based on active compounds. Level of Pb in the farmer's blood was the highest level of 6.6 g/dL and the lowest level of 1.7 g/dL with an average of 4.1 g/dL and still within normal limits. Respondents who used organophosphate pesticides found the highest levels of 6.6 g/dL and the lowest levels of 2.5 g/dL with an average of 4.36 g/dL. Respondents who used carbamate pesticide obtained the highest level of 5.1 g/dL and the lowest level of 1.7 g/dL with an average of 4.06 g/dL. The results from the ANOVA test with an F count of 4.789 and a significance level of probability 0.032 < 0.05, there was a significant relationship between types of pesticides based on the content of active compounds used by farmers on blood lead levels in Bangka district.

Blood lead levels in 2018/2019 compared to 1987/1988 in the German population-based KORA study

IntroductionLead exposure remains of continuing concern due to its known and suspected impacts on human health and has been designated as a priority substance for investigation in human biomonitoring studies by the EU. The aims of this study were to measure blood lead levels (BLL) in a population based cohort of middle-aged individuals without major current exposures to lead, and to compare these to historical blood lead levels obtained thirty years earlier. MethodsThe population-based KORA study from 1984 to 2001 included inhabitants of the Augsburg Region, Germany. During 2018 to 2019, a subsample of these participants (KORA-Fit) was invited for interview regarding demographic and lifestyle factors, physical examination and blood withdrawal. Blood samples were stored at −80C prior to measurement of BLL via graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy (GF-AAS). Descriptive and multivariable analyses were performed. ResultsBLLs were measured in 3033 eligible persons aged 54 to 73, establishing a geometric mean (GM) BLL of 24.8 μg/l in 2018/19. Of these, 555 (18%) had BLL above proposed 95th percentile reference values of the German Environment Agency. Only small differences were found in BLL stratified by sociodemographic categories, however regular smokers had higher GM BLL (26.1 μg/l) compared to never smokers (23.7 μg/l), and an increasing BLL with increased wine consumption was noted. For 556 individuals, BLLs (GM: 54.0 μg/l) reduced by 35% in men and 50% in women compared to levels in 1987/88 with only 1.4% of individuals having an unchanged or increased BLL. DiscussionKORA-Fit provided contemporary normative data for BLL in a Western European population without major current sources of lead exposure. Mean BLLs have fallen since the 1980s using historical BLL data which is likely linked to the ban of leaded gasoline. Nevertheless, BLLs in this population remain elevated at levels associated with morbidity and mortality.

The Differences in Blood Lead Levels in Women with Gestational Hypertension or Pre-Eclampsia and Women with Normal Pregnancy (A Study in the North Coast of Java, Brebes District)

Introduction: Gestational Hypertension (GH) and Pre-eclampsia (PE) are the leading causes of maternal death. Exposure to lead from the environment, especially agricultural activities, may cause pregnant women to suffer from GH and PE. GH/ PE may occur through oxidative stress mechanisms and progressive endothelial damage. Brebes District is one of the areas with the highest Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) in Central Java where the occurrence of GH/PE was a lot. This study aimed to analyze the differences in Blood Lead Levels (BLL) in pregnant women with GH/PE and normal pregnant women in Brebes District. Methods: This study used a cross-sectional design. By selecting and applying inclusion criteria, 18 subjects were selected for the GH/PE group (case group), and 46 subjects were selected for the normotension group (control group). Measurement of BLL was carried out using the Atomic-Absorption Spectrometry (AAS). Some of the statistical methods used were independent t-test, Mann-Whitney test, Chi-square test, multivariate logistic regression test, and Rank-Spearman correlation test. The risk estimate was calculated from the Odds-Ratio (OR) and 95% Confidence Interval (CI). Results and Discussion: The median value and range of the BLL in the case and control groups were 40.20 g/dL (15.50-89.20) and 32.75 g/dL (3.60-42.80), respectively (p = 0.011). Pregnant women with the BLL of ≥ 35.15 g/dL had eight times the risk of experiencing GH/PE (Adj-OR = 8.1; 95% CI = 1.7-39.0). Exposure to lead will increase the production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), resulting in oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction in addition to increasing the blood pressure. Conclusion: The BLL in pregnant women with GH/PE is higher than women with normal pregnancy, and the BLL in the high category is a risk factor for GH/PE.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEAD EXPOSURE IN BLOOD AND HEMOGLOBIN LEVELS IN WOMEN OF CHILDBEARING AGE IN NORTH SEMARANG DISTRICT, SEMARANG CITY

The results of transportation activities, humans, and also company activities will lead to lead exposure in the surrounding environment, if for a long time the lead exposure can cause health problems for the community. One of the effects of long-term health problems caused by lead exposure is a decrease in hemoglobin levels. Based on the 2013 Riskesdes data, the anemia rate in women of childbearing age (WUS) is 32.9%. The prevalence of anemia in Central Java is 57.7%. The purpose of this study was to describe and analyze the relationship between blood lead exposure and hemoglobin levels in women of childbearing age, North Semarang District. This type of research is analytical observational with a cross sectional study design conducted in the North Semarang district with 50 respondents selected by purposive sampling. Collecting data by interview, observation, measurement of blood lead levels, measurement of hemoglobin levels. Data analysis used chi-square test and correlation. Based on the results of bivariate analysis, it is known that the value of blood lead levels with r = 0.461 and p = 0.001 which means the strength of the relationship between blood lead levels and hemoglobin has a moderate relationship strength. Based on a study of 50 women of childbearing age who were examined for hemoglobin levels in the blood, there were 56% of women of childbearing age who experienced abnormal hemoglobin levels, and 44% of women of childbearing age who experienced normal hemoglobin levels.

A Rapid Mercury Droplet Electrode Polarography Method for Determination of Blood Lead Level in Lead Poisoned People.

Lead is a hazardous heavy metal, which causes many problems in the human body. Unfortunately, recent reports showed that smugglers and opium sellers add lead to drugs during the production procedure in order to increase its weight and cost. The aim of this study was development of a rapid and accurate method for measurement of blood lead levels (BLL) in the oral and inhaled opiate abuser people. BLL in samples obtained from the oral and inhaled opium addicted patients referring to Sina Hospital in Tabriz, Iran, during 2017 was compared with healthy control group (N=15). The wet digestion method was used to prepare whole blood and Mercury Droplet Electrode Polarography (MDEP) method was utilized for measurement of the lead content of digested samples. Results showed that there were significant differences between the BLL of samples obtained from oral (17.12±74.61 μg/dL, p<0.0003) and inhaled (19.33±2.257 μg/dL, p<0.0001) opium addicted groups in comparison with healthy control group (4.669±0.3367 μg/dL). Based on the results of this study it was observed that BLL in opium addicted people needs to be measured as soon as possible. Furthermore, screening of blood lead concentrations in opium-addicted people with a rapid and accurate MDEP method is very necessary and important.

Blood Lead, Nutrient Intake, and Renal Function Among Type 2 Diabetic Patients

Abstract Objectives We hereby reported cross-sectional findings on impaired renal function in association with the exposure to lead (Pb) and dietary intake of nutrients among patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D). Methods Pb exposure and renal injury was assessed by the measurement of blood lead levels (BLLs) and biochemical parameters, respectively, in 780 patients. The intake of dietary nutrients was assessed by food frequency questionnaire in 420 of 780 participants. Results The BLLs were found to be significantly associated with certain parameters of renal injury in both ordinary least squares and quantile regression analyses at upper quantiles. The BLLs at 95th quantiles by quantile regression analyses were also found to be significantly reverse associated with dietary intake of calcium (Ca), zinc (Zn), selenium (Se), kalium (K), magnesium (Mg), vitamin C (VC) and fiber, but not with iron (Fe). The moderation analyses revealed significantly moderation effects of BLLs on the association between dietary nutrients and some renal function parameters. Conclusions Our observations may support the therapeutic use of specific dietary nutrients in preventing renal injury associated with Pb exposure in T2D patients, in case of them being in a state of both nutritional deficiencies and Pb poisoning. Funding Sources This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China [grant numbers 2017YFC1600504]; the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation Grant [grant numbers KLH3056089].

Linking elevated blood lead level in urban school-aged children with bioaccessible lead in neighborhood soil

Lead (Pb) exposure is known to affect the health of children while soil Pb is an important contributor to human Pb exposure. To analyze the effects of both environmental and other factors, especially total and bioaccessible Pb in neighborhood soil, on school-aged urban children’s blood lead level (BLL), 75 children (6–11 years old) were recruited from an industry city in eastern China for BLL measurement and questionnaire survey. Soil samples were collected from their living neighborhoods and measured for total and bioaccessible Pb. The mean BLL was 4.82 μg dL−1, with 42 out of 75 children having BLL exceeding the international guideline of 5 μg dL−1. Low Pb contamination was observed in soil with total Pb ranging from 12.5 to 271 mg kg−1 (mean 34.3 mg kg−1). Based on the in vitro Solubility Bioaccessibility Research Consortium (SBRC) gastric fluid extraction, bioaccessible Pb in soil ranged from 0.40 to 79.1 mg kg−1 (mean 7.58 mg kg−1) with Pb bioaccessibility ranging from 1.74 to 68.1 (mean 19.9%). When BLL was correlated with total Pb in soil, insignificant linear relationship was observed (P > 0.05, correlation coefficient 95%CI = −0.047–0.40, R2 = 0.07). However, when BLL was correlated with soil bioaccessible Pb or Pb bioaccessibility, much stronger linear relationships were observed (P < 0.01, correlation coefficient 95%CI = 0.28–0.64, R2 = 0.16–0.20), suggesting that bioaccessible Pb was a much stronger predictor of BLL. In addition, strong associations were also observed between BLL and social factors such as house decoration, residence time, and personal habits, suggesting that both soil Pb contamination and social factors play important roles in elevating BLL for city children.

Treatment of adult lead poisoning with D-penicillamine

Background The aim of the current study was to evaluate the efficacy of D-penicillamine in the treatment of lead poisoning mainly in the outpatient setting. Methods In a case series study performed during the recent epidemic of lead poisoning in Iran, lead-poisoned patients referring to our outpatient clinic were treated with 250-mg D-penicillamine capsules administered every 6 h for 5 or 10 days based on availability of the medication. They were recommended to re-check blood lead level (BLL) 4 weeks after cessation of the treatment and refer to our clinic again. Results In 63 patients with lead poisoning but without signs and symptoms of lead encephalopathy, median BLL was 106 [84, 131] μg/dL on presentation, which declined to a mean of 52.6 ± 28.8 μg/dL after a median treatment period of 7 [5, 10] days (p < 0.001). There was no statistically significant difference between the 5- and 10-day treatment protocols regarding complications and recovery. Treatment had resulted in a median decrease of 54 μg/dL [33, 90] (range: -20 to 231 μg/dL) in the patients' BLLs (33.9% declined in BLL measurements; range: -29.69% to 99.06%). Conclusions D-penicillamine may be an acceptable substitute treatment in adult lead poisoning. Although our sample size was limited, we could not detect any serious adverse effects in our cases showing that D-penicillamine resulted in acceptable recovery rates. This may be helpful especially in epidemics with limitations in antidote access.

Examining the relationship between blood lead level and stunting, wasting and underweight- A cross-sectional study of children under 2 years-of-age in a Bangladeshi slum.

Elevated blood lead level (BLL) is known to cause cardiac, immune, and cognitive damage but had not been thoroughly studied in relation to stunting among children under two years of age. We primarily aimed to assess the relationship between elevated BLL, the accumulation of concerned amount of the metal lead in blood and stunting and secondarily—wasting and underweight amongst Bangladeshi children less than two years of age. For this cross-sectional study, BLL measurements, anthropometric data, and socioeconomic indicator information were collected and analyzed for 729 children under two years of age upon enrollment in the MAL-ED study conducted in a Bangladeshi slum area. Univariate, bivariate and multivariate analyses were carried out to observe the proportion and mean and contribution of elevated BLL and other relevant variables in explaining the occurrence of stunting. Of the enrolled subjects, 39.0% were stunted [length-for-age z score (LAZ<-2)], 50.3% were male, and 86.6% had an elevated BLL (≥5μg/dL). Mean BLL of stunted children was 8.47 ± 3·37 μg/dL and 8.10 ± 3·80 μg/dL for non-stunted children. Proportion of children with elevated BLL was not significantly different between the stunted and non-stunted groups (p>0.05). When adjusted for other variables, elevated BLL was found to be a significant predictor of stunting and underweight (p<0.05) but not wasting (p>0.05). Elevated BLL (p<0·01), child’s gender and weight (p<0·001), maternal body mass index (BMI) (p<0.05) and severe household food insecurity (p<0·05) were all significantly associated with stunting in the multivariate model. Increased odds of stunting was also observed for increased BLL. The findings suggest that chronic lead poisoning is significantly associated with high level of stunting among child slum dwellers in Bangladesh. These findings strengthen the argument for improved lead reduction efforts in Bangladesh, where lead poisoning and stunting are both highly prevalent.

Declines in adult blood lead levels in New York City compared with the United States, 2004–2014

ObjectivesTo assess changes in lead exposure in the New York City (NYC) adult population over a 10-year period and to contrast changes with national estimates, overall, and by socio-demographics and smoking status. MethodsWe used measurements of blood lead levels (BLLs) from NYC resident adults who participated in the NYC Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (HANES) in 2004 and 2013–2014. We compared estimates of geometric means (GM), 95th percentiles, and prevalence of BLL ≥ 5 µg/dL overall and by subgroups over time, with adults who participated in the National HANES (NHANES) 2001–2004 and 2011–2014. ResultsThe GM BLLs among NYC adults declined from 1.79 µg/dL in 2004 to 1.13 µg/dL in 2013–2014 (P < .0001). The declines over this period ranged from 30.1% to 43.2% across socio-demographic groups and smoking status (P < .0001 for all comparisons), and were slightly greater than declines observed nationally. The drop in prevalence of elevated BLLs (≥ 5 µg/dL) was also greater in NYC (4.8–0.5%), compared with NHANES (3.8–2.0%). By 2013–2014, NYC adults with lower annual family income (< $20,000) no longer had higher GM BLLs relative to those with higher incomes (≥ $75,000), a disparity improvement not observed nationally. Likewise, GM BLLs and 95th percentiles for non-Hispanic black adults in NYC were lower than GM BLLs for non-Hispanic white adults. Non-Hispanic Asian adults had the highest GM BLLs compared with other racial/ethnic groups, both in NYC in 2013–14 and nationally in 2011–2014 (1.37 µg/dL, P = .1048 and 1.22 µg/dL, P = .0004, respectively). ConclusionThe lessening of disparity in lead exposure across income groups and decreasing exposure at the high end of the distribution among non-Hispanic black and Asian adults in NYC suggest that regulatory and outreach efforts have effectively targeted these higher exposure risk groups. However, Asian adults still had the highest average BLL, suggesting a need for enhanced outreach to this group. Local surveillance remains an important tool to monitor BLLs of local populations and to inform initiatives to reduce exposures in those at highest risk.

Childhood lead poisoning: an overview.

Childhood lead poisoning is a major public health concern in many countries. In 2015, the Hong Kong SAR Government and its citizens faced a major public health crisis due to the presence of lead in the drinking water of a number of public housing estates. Fortunately, no child was diagnosed with lead poisoning that required treatment with chelation. Lead is a ubiquitous, naturally occurring material that exists in air, dust, soil, and water. It is also widely present in industrial products including petrol, paints, ceramics, food cans, candies, cosmetics, traditional remedies, batteries, solder, stained glass, crystal vessels, ammunition, ceramic glazes, jewellry, and toys. It can also be found in human milk. There is no safe blood lead level and it may be impossible to completely eliminate lead from any city. Hence routine measurement of blood lead levels is not considered useful. Acute poisoning, especially with encephalopathy, deserves immediate medical treatment in hospital. Chelation therapy is recommended if blood lead level is 45 μg/dL or higher. For blood levels between 20 and 45 μg/dL, treatment is indicated if the child is symptomatic. For blood levels below 20 μg/dL in otherwise asymptomatic children, the principle of treatment is to provide long-term neurodevelopmental follow-up and counselling. In all cases, immediate removal of the source of lead exposure is vital. Even low levels of lead exposure can significantly impair learning, educational attainment, and neurodevelopment.

8-year review of laboratory performance on blood lead level external quality assessment surveys 2006–2013 in China: continual improvement

High blood lead level (BLL) in children may result in a variety of clinical symptoms such as low IQ, behavior disorders, nutritional deficiencies. There may be differences in reported BLL values whether laboratories use the same or a different method. Therefore, it is important to know the analytical performance of the various methods and laboratories in relation to the analytical requirements for BLL measurement. From 2006 annual or biannual BLL, external quality assessment programs were organized by the Chinese National Center for Clinical Laboratories to collect results reported by 56–471 Chinese laboratories. Data from each laboratory were collected using an internet reporting system and later analyzed according to ISO 13528. The performance of the participating laboratories was evaluated according to the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendment of 1988. Tungsten atomic absorption spectrometry and graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry were the two methods used most. The data reviewed clearly show that the laboratory performance improved over time since 2006. However, further monitoring of the quality of BLL measurements is required.

0375 Mortality of a cohort of workers in Great Britain with blood lead measurements

ObjectivesWe report on the first ever analysis of a UK cohort of workers with blood lead level measurements that was assembled in the late 1970s.MethodAs an alternative to mean and...

Evaluation of the Airborne Particles Fraction Responsible for Adverse Health Effects

A new approach to evaluation of the fraction of airborne particles that is responsible for adverse health effects has been developed. In this approach a two-fraction concept for the adverse health effects is proposed. This concept considers aerosol particles in the air, the fraction of particles deposited in the respiratory system (captured by the system) and the fraction of particle accumulated in the body (captured by the body). The latter fraction of airborne particles actually causes the adverse health effects and associated with the health risk. The approach has been applied to workers in crystal glass industry exposed to lead. A size resolved sampling technique was employed to characterize nanoparticles at work places at several plants involved in lead processing. Lead aerosol size distributions were obtained across the entire aerosol particle size range from 1 nm to 30 μm (diameter). Size distributions were used to calculate the total lead intake due to particle deposition in the respiratory system of workers. A bio-kinetic model was employed to evaluate various size fraction contributions to the total blood lead level in workers. A comparison was made between calculated blood lead levels and actual measurements of blood lead levels of workers exposed to atmospheres containing lead. It was found that nanoparticles cause the major health risk due to high deposition efficiency and low clearance rate by the mucociliary escalator.

Prevention of Chronic Lead Toxicity on Adult Worker with Calcium Supplement

Lead can cause health disorders in humans, albeit at a lower level than the permitted maximum blood lead level. Therefore, a treatment should be sought that will reduce lead in the blood, especially in adults. Communities who have a high risk for chronic lead poisoning from the ambient air are employees who work on the road. This study aims to analyze the effects of calcium supplementation on blood lead levels in adult workers. This research uses quasi-experimental design with a community trial design for as many as 150 people, the group consisted of 75 control and 75 treated groups which were given calcium supplements at a dose of 500 mg 3 times daily for three months. Measurements of blood lead levels were taken before consuming calcium and three months afterwards by using Spectrofotometer at Clinical Laboratory. Subjects who completed the study on a regular basis totaled 87 people, divided into a control group of 46 people and the treated group of 41 people. The results showed that: (1) the initial blood lead levels in the control group 6.11 &mu;g/dL and 4.16 &mu;g/dL after treatment. Initial blood lead levels in the treated group 10.35 &mu;g/dL and 3.2 8 &mu;g/dL after treatment; (2) calcium treatment with a dose of 3 x 500 mg a day orally for 3 months can reduce blood lead levels significantly. This study found that calcium tablets can be used to reduce blood lead levels in adult workers.

Blood Lead Levels and Risk Factors in a Low-Income Latino Population in Seattle, WA USA

Background and Aims This study determined blood lead levels (BLLs) and predictors in a low-income urban Latino pediatric population in the northwestern United States (Seattle, WA). Surveillance for lead exposure is historically rare in this region. Methods Study subjects comprised a cross-sectional sample of 278 children ages 1 to 6 years attending a clinic serving largely Mexican American and Central American immigrant families. An interviewer administered questionnaire was conducted with the child’s caregiver. Measurement of BLL was done using an ESA Lead Care II analyzer. Comparison to national data and multivariate analysis of known and suspected risk factors was performed. Results The geometric mean BLL was 1.43 ug/dL (95% CI: 1.13, 1.79). For comparison, nationally representative data from 2007-2008 estimated the geometric mean BLL for children under age 6 years was 1.51 mcg/dL (95% CI: 1.37, 1.66). Most (252, 91%) had a BLL lower than the Lead Care II limit of detection, 3.3 µg/dL. Two children’s (0.7%) BLL was higher than 5 µg/dL. None were above 10 µg/dL. The most informative predictor of detectable BLL included nationality other than the US or Mexico (OR=16.1; 95% CI: 1.6, 220.7), living in homes built before 1950 (OR=5.1; 95% CI: 1.4, 16.9) and observed to put paint chips in the mouth (OR=3.6; 95% CI: 1.1, 11.2). Culturally specific risk factors such as ingesting Mexican candies, use of home remedies, and use of ceramic or clay food receptacles were not associated with elevated risk of a detectable BLL. Conclusions Lead exposure in this urban Latino population appeared comparable to observations in other U.S. children. Sample size and power to fully investigate exposure risk factors was a limitation. These preliminary data support targeted screening based on lead based paint and immigration status as conducted in other pediatric U.S. populations.

Increased concentrations of serum inhibin B among male workers with long-term moderate lead exposure

Lead is known to have an adverse effect to human reproductive system. This study investigates the association between different lead indices (both current and cumulative) and serum inhibin B as well as hormone concentrations in a group of 181 male lead workers. We used data collected during annual health examinations, including measurements of blood lead levels, inhibin B, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and testosterone (TTE) as well as age, gender, height, weight, smoking and drinking habits. The cumulative lead index included index of cumulative blood lead (ICL) and time weighted index of cumulative blood lead (TWICL) which were calculated from the series blood lead concentrations by annual health examinations since 1991 to the time of the study. Data was analyzed by Pearson correlation and multiple regressions. We found the Pearson correlation coefficients of ICL and TWICL vs. inhibin B to be 0.220 ( p = 0.003) and 0.231 ( p = 0.008), respectively. After adjusting for age, smoking, drinking, LH, FSH, and TTE, our multiple regression models revealed that with each unit increase in ICL and TWICL, there was a 0.047 pg/mL ( p = 0.017) and 1.333 pg/mL ( p = 0.007) increase in inhibin B. We found an association between cumulative lead index and concentration of serum inhibin B in male workers exposed to lead over long period, possibly indirectly affecting spermatogenesis.

Occupational Lead Exposure: Blood Lead Levels of Apprentices in Bursa, Turkey

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to compare the blood lead levels of apprentices working in lead-related industries with those of non-apprentice controls and to evaluate the influence of such occupational exposure. The study was conducted between October 2004 and June 2005 in Bursa, Turkey. Subjects included 231 apprentices and 252 male controls, age ranging from 14-19 yr old. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was used to analyze blood lead levels. The overall mean blood lead level was 3.62 microg/dl (95% CI 3.39-3.85), the apprentice mean was 4.99 microg/dl (95% CI 4.60-5.38), and the control group mean was 2.37 microg/dl (95% CI 2.22-2.51). The blood lead level of apprentices was significantly higher than that of controls (p<0.05). Results show that occupational exposure increases the blood lead levels of apprentices, although the impact on their immediate health is low. Measurement of blood lead levels of apprentices should be taken periodically, and a regular medical surveillance program should be established.

Blood Lead Levels in Children

Blood Lead Levels in Children