Measurement Range Research Articles

Reference measures of lower-limb joint range of motion, muscle strength, and selective voluntary motor control of typically developing children aged 5-17 years.

Joint range of motion based on the neutral null method, muscle strength based on manual muscle testing, and selective voluntary motor control based on selective control assessment of the lower extremity are standard parameters of a pediatric three-dimensional clinical gait analysis. Lower-limb reference data of children are necessary to identify and quantify abnormalities, but these are limited and when present restricted to specific joints or muscles. This is the first study that encompasses the aforementioned parameters from a single group of 34 typically developing children aged 5-17 years. Left and right values were averaged for each participant, and then the mean and standard deviation calculated for the entire sample. The data set was tested for statistical significance (p < 0.05). Joint angle reference values are mostly consistent with previously published standards, although there is a large variability in the existing literature. All muscle strength distributions, except for M. quadriceps femoris, differ significantly from the maximum value of 5. The mean number of repetitions of heel-rise test is 12 ± 5. Selective voluntary motor control shows that all distributions, except for M. quadriceps femoris, differ significantly from the maximum value of 2. Since typically developing children do not match expectations and reference values from the available literature and clinical use, this study emphasizes the importance of normative data. Excessively high expectations lead to typically developing children being falsely underestimated and affected children being rated too low. This is of great relevance for therapists and clinicians. 3.

The Influence of the Design of Antenna and Chip Coupling Circuits on the Performance of Textronic RFID UHF Transponders

The objectives of this study were to design, investigate, and compare different designs of coupling circuits for textronic RFID transponders, particularly focusing on magnetic coupling between an antenna and a chip. The configuration of the inductively coupled antenna module and the microelectronic module housing the chip can be varied in several ways. This article explores various geometries of coupling circuits and assesses the effects of altering their dimensions on mutual inductance, chip voltage, and the transponder’s read range. The investigation comprised an analytical description of inductive coupling, calculations of mutual inductance and chip voltage based on simulation models of transponders, and laboratory measurements of the read range for selected configurations. The results obtained from this study demonstrate that various designs of textile transponders are capable of achieving satisfactory read ranges, with some configurations extending beyond 10 m. This significant range provides clothing designers with the flexibility to select transponder designs that best meet their specific aesthetic and functional requirements.

RBFNN-based angles-only orbit determination method for non-cooperative space targets

Angles-only orbit determination during space situational awareness missions for non-cooperative targets such as space debris is subject to the well-known observability problem, that is, the orbital state is weakly observable or even unobservable because of missing range measurements. The key point to solve this problem is how to quickly capture the nonlinearity of orbit dynamics if only one space-based passive sensor is available to observe the target and translational maneuvers are not executed. To solve the short-arc angles-only problem, this study develops a simple and fast orbit determination method by exploiting the advantages of radial basis function neural network (RBFNN). Emphasis was placed on the design of the RBFNN, which was trained to construct a mapping network model from line-of-sight (LOS) measurements to the relative orbit. First, the perturbed relative orbit dynamics considering the Earth's non-spherical J2 term and air drag was established with the LOS measurement model. Second, a RBFNN-based angles-only orbit determination frame was developed, in which the generator of the training dataset, data preprocessing algorithm, and RBF network structure were designed. Finally, the proposed method was verified and tested using a set of numerical simulations of low-Earth orbit cases. The anti-noise and generalization performance of the designed network and the sensitivity of the solution accuracy to the measurement frequency and span were presented and discussed. Additionally, the advantages of the RBFNN-based method were confirmed by comparison with the results obtained using the BPNN (Back Propagation Neural Network)-based method. The simulation results show that the average orbit prediction error for LEO scenarios is approximately 0.08% using the index of initial relative distance, where only three sets of LOS angles are measured within a span of 24 s.

Development of a high-resolution, broadband spatial heterodyne Raman spectrometer based on field-widened grating-echelle structure

We propose a spatial heterodyne Raman spectrometer (SHRS) based on a field-widened grating-echelle (FWGE). A normal grating is combined with an echelle grating in a conventional spatial heterodyne spectrometer to eliminate ghost images without using masks, and prevents interference among the spatial frequencies of different diffraction orders. Mathematical expressions and derivation processes are given for the spectral parameters in the FWGE-SHRS and a verification breadboard system is fabricated. The FWGE-SHRS measures Raman spectra of single chemicals and mixed targets with different integration times, laser powers, concentrations, and transparent containers. The results of the experiments demonstrate that the FWGE-SHRS is suitable for high-resolution, broadband Raman measurements for a wide range of applications.

Dealing with Outliers in Wireless Sensor Networks Localization: An Iterative and Selection-Minimization Strategy

In recent years, there has been considerable interest in robust range-based Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) localization due to the increasing importance of accurately locating sensors in various WSN applications. However, achieving precise localization is often hampered by the presence of outliers or underestimations in range measurements, particularly when employing the RSS technique. To tackle these issues, we introduce a Two-Step Localization (namely, the SelMin approach). In the initial phase, the approach utilizes Second-Order Cone Programming (SOCP) to minimize distance discrepancies. It does this by comparing a reference Euclidean Distance Matrix (EDM) with a weighted one derived from imprecise distances between sensor nodes. In the subsequent phase, a heuristic method is employed to identify a specific number of imprecise distances, referred to as outliers, that will be disregarded in the first phase, and this two-phase process continues iteratively. The experimental results demonstrate that the SelMin strategy performs better than the DSCL method when evaluated using the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) metric. This superior performance is maintained even in challenging conditions, such as when there are many outliers (i.e, around 30%\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\%$$\\end{document}) in the network. This indicates that SelMin is a reliable and robust choice for these environments.

Neuro-orthopaedic check-up and walking in people with multiple sclerosis: toward a more specific assessment to improve rehabilitation results.

The rehabilitation process of people with multiple sclerosis (PwMS) is a challenge, and decision-making requires a thorough assessment to increase the chances of success in rehabilitation planning. The aim of this study was to investigate the importance of the neuroorthopaedic check-Up (NOChU) for gait prognosis. Participated in the study 105 PwMS with different levels of impairment. The NOChU includes measurements of passive range of motion (ROM), muscle strength, and spasticity. Additionally, was carried out the spatial-temporal analysis of the walking, Timed Up and Go test, and 6-min walk test. ROM remained relatively preserved to perform daily life activities except for ankle dorsiflexion. Muscle strength was also relatively preserved. Spasticity affected especially the ankle muscles, clearly the sural triceps. Among the NOChU measurements the catch seemed to have the most impact on walking on its different phases and on other activities. Accurate NOChU measurements play a crucial role in clinical settings, guiding informed decisions in rehabilitation planning. Future research endeavours could focus on exploring the correlations between NOChU deficiencies and the decline in walking capabilities among PwMS, with the goal of proposing personalized treatment strategies that address their specific requirements.

Optimal temperatures for measuring oil viscosity to restore its viscosity-temperature dependence according to the Filonov–Reynolds, Walter and Vogel–Fulcher–Tamman formulas

Relevance. Increase in the number of high-viscosity and non-Newtonian oils produced and transported. For such oils, it is important to accurately predict the rheological properties and, in particular, the viscosity-temperature dependence. Viscosity measurement for a wide range of different temperatures is excessively time-consuming and irrational, and in practice, viscosity measurement is used at two or three different temperatures and then conversion formulas are used. It is also important to clarify, which formulas and for which oils should be used to obtain the smallest error. It is important, in particular, to determine the optimal temperatures for measuring the viscosity of oil to restore its viscosity-temperature dependence. Aim. To determine the optimal temperatures for measuring oil viscosity to restore its viscosity-temperature dependence using the Filonov–Reynolds, Walter and Vogel–Fulcher–Tamman formulas, including when calculating for the entire available temperature range. Objects. Viscosity-temperature dependences of oils from the Directory of oils of the USSR. Methods. Processing the viscosity measurement data for 564 oils from the USSR Oil Directory; construction of approximating viscosity-temperature dependencies; determination of error when using the obtained dependencies, including using cross-validation. Results. The authors have calculated the error in application of the Filonov–Reynolds, Walter, Vogel–Fulcher–Tamman formulas, using over 500 oils as an example. It was found that with a random choice of temperatures for measuring viscosity, the minimum average error at another temperature for these formulas is, respectively, 13.8, 10.7 and 6.2%. The use of the Filonov–Reynolds formula is undesirable for calculating viscosity at low temperatures. The Vogel–Fulcher–Tamman formula shows the best results in calculating viscosity when using temperatures of 30–50–70 and 10–30–50°C.

Large-Dynamic-Range Ocular Aberration Measurement Based on Deep Learning with a Shack-Hartmann Wavefront Sensor.

The Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor (SHWFS) is widely utilized for ocular aberration measurement. However, large ocular aberrations caused by individual differences can easily make the spot move out of the range of the corresponding sub-aperture in SHWFS, rendering the traditional centroiding method ineffective. This study applied a novel convolutional neural network (CNN) model to wavefront sensing for large dynamic ocular aberration measurement. The simulation results demonstrate that, compared to the modal method, the dynamic range of our method for main low-order aberrations in ocular system is increased by 1.86 to 43.88 times in variety. Meanwhile, the proposed method also has the best measurement accuracy, and the statistical root mean square (RMS) of the residual wavefronts is 0.0082 ± 0.0185 λ (mean ± standard deviation). The proposed method generally has a higher accuracy while having a similar or even better dynamic range as compared to traditional large-dynamic schemes. On the other hand, compared with recently developed deep learning methods, the proposed method has a much larger dynamic range and better measurement accuracy.

New static apparatus STAT9 for vapor pressure measurements at temperatures up to 463 K

In this work, a state-of-the-art static apparatus for vapor pressure measurements in a temperature range of 363−463 K and a wide pressure range of 1−13,330 Pa is introduced and described. The performance of the apparatus was evaluated by a meticulous procedure of measuring the vapor pressure of five reference materials of different volatility, anthracene, benzophenone, ferrocene, naphthalene, and dibenzothiophene. The last two compounds were studied in the blind test regime, i.e., the results were compared to literature only after finishing the experiments. During benchmarking the performance of the apparatus, it was found appropriate to develop new vapor pressure equations for ferrocene and anthracene that included high-temperature data from the STAT9 apparatus. By combining the new data with previously selected vapor pressures, sublimation enthalpies, and ideal-gas and condensed phase heat capacities, we have obtained a consistent sublimation pressure equation for anthracene and ferrocene. For anthracene, the correlation procedure covered melting properties and liquid-phase vapor pressure data to support the description of the high-temperature region. The revised vapor pressure equations and sublimation enthalpies may serve as solid foundation for future research in this field.

МЕТОДИКА ІНТЕРПОЛЯЦІЇ ТА ЕКСТРАПОЛЯЦІЇ ДАНИХ ПРИ НЕРАВНОМІРНОМУ КРОКУ ЗМІНИ ПАРАМЕТРІВ ЕКСПЕРИМЕНТУ

The problem with using experimental data is the limited range and uneven measurement step for individual variables. This reduces the accuracy of determining the value of the desired function. The method of further research is to increase the number of values of the sought function based on limited experimental data. The research method involves developing a methodology for interpolation and extrapolation of experimental data using the functions of the Matlab package. The result of the investigation is that the technique allows you to create a uniform grid of reference values, fill it with the required step of changing variables, extrapolate data to the boundaries of the data space, where the influence of a given argument on the function is zero, isolate the contribution of individual arguments to the value of the function, synthesize the value of the function in new nodes reference grid of values The application of a standardized method was introduced to form a space of values of the relative rate of aging of cellulose insulation of power transformer windings as a function of temperature, humidity and oxygen access, which made it possible to increase the amount of data at least 4 times compared to the experiment.

Distinguishing ΛCDM from Evolving Dark Energy with Om Two-point Statistics: Implications from the Space-borne Gravitational-wave Detector

The Omh 2(z i , z j ) two-point diagnostics was proposed as a litmus test of the ΛCDM model, and measurements of the cosmic expansion rate H(z) have been extensively used to perform this test. The results obtained so far suggested a tension between observations and predictions of the ΛCDM model. However, the data set of H(z) direct measurements from cosmic chronometers and baryon acoustic oscillations was quite limited. This motivated us to study the performance of this test on a larger sample obtained in an alternative way. In this paper, we propose that gravitational-wave (GW) standard sirens could provide large samples of H(z) measurements in the redshift range of 0 < z < 5, based on the measurements of the dipole anisotropy of luminosity distance arising from the matter inhomogeneities of the large-scale structure and the local motion of the observer. We discuss the effectiveness of our method in the context of the space-borne DECi-herz Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory, based on a comprehensive H(z) simulated data set from binary neutron star merger systems. Our results indicate that in the GW domain, the Omh 2(z i , z j ) two-point diagnostics could effectively distinguish whether ΛCDM is the best description of our Universe. We also discuss the potential of our methodology in determining possible evidence for dark energy evolution, focusing on its performance on the constant and redshift-dependent dark energy equation of state.

ПРИМЕНЕНИЕ МЕДИАННОЙ ФИЛЬТРАЦИИ ДЛЯ ПОВЫШЕНИЯ КАЧЕСТВА ИЗМЕРЕНИЙ УЛЬТРАЗВУКОВЫМИ ДАТЧИКАМИ РАССТОЯНИЯ

An option has been considered to improve the quality of range measurements by ultrasonic sensors through the use of median filtering. This approach allows us to eliminate the negative feature of ultra-sonic sensors, which is that due to the characteristics of the environment in which the distance is measured, the sensor periodically determines this distance incorrectly. From a metrological point of view, this means that in a series of distance measurements, measurement results often appear that differ sharply from the rest in this series

The inner workings of sp2 clusters in nitrogen-incorporated tetrahedral amorphous carbon thin films according to optical analyses

The conduction mechanism in nitrogen-incorporated tetrahedral amorphous carbon (ta-C: N) thin films is mainly attributed to the conjugation in sp2 clusters. Here, ta-C:N thin films (about 100 nm) were deposited by laser controlled pulsed cathodic vacuum arc (Laser-Arc) at different nitrogen gas flow rates to investigate the electrical properties of such films. Mechanical and structural properties indicate an increase in sp2 fraction with a rise in nitrogen incorporation into the deposited films. However, after an initial decrease in electrical resistivity, it plateaus at higher flow rates while the sp2 content is still rising. Hence, to gain better understanding of the electronic properties, the dielectric constants ε1 and ε2 were obtained from the optical constants [n] and [k], which were numerically determined from reflectance [R] and transmittance [T] measurements in the wavelength range from 190 to 2500 nm (0.5 to 6.5 eV). The dielectric constant ε1 was used to calculate the dielectric volume of the atom, which is interpreted as a measure of the conjugated π electron system. Furthermore, modeling of the dielectric constants yielded the number of conjugated electrons per atom. Through the dielectric volume and number of conjugated electrons, it was discovered that the electrical conductivity does not only depend on the sp2 content and cluster size, but on how many electrons are conjugated and how much space these electrons occupy. The ta-C:N samples with the highest electrical conductivity, were either characterized by the largest occupied volume or the highest number of conjugated electrons.

Implementatie van de Infectierisicoscan in een ziekenhuisnetwerk door het Hospital Outbreak Support Team

Implementation of the Infection Risk Scan in a hospital network by the Hospital Outbreak Support Team The Infection Risk Scan (IRIS) assesses the quality of infection prevention and control (IPC) and antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) in a hospital ward by the standardized measurement of a broad range of quality indicators. IRIS was implemented in the geriatric wards of the 4 hospitals of the Plexus healthcare network ‘Oost-Vlaams-Brabant’ (Belgium). The goal was to compare the IPC and AMS policies of the hospitals in order to define common improvement strategies within the Hospital Outbreak Support Team (HOST), a federal project concerning IPC and AMS. In the first part of IRIS, the risk profile of the patient population is determined by a point prevalence measurement of 4 variables. In the second part, the improvement plot is created based on the measurement of 7 quality indicators. Improvement actions can be deduced from quality indicators with higher improvement potentials. The risk profiles of the 4 hospitals were highly comparable and the improvement plots showed an intermediate to high improvement potential for the use of AMT and hand hygiene compliance. There were important differences in the appropriate use of transurethral and intravascular catheters, with 2 hospitals having a low and 2 hospitals having a high improvement potential. IRIS was a useful tool in the early phase of the HOST project to benchmark the IPC and AMT policies between the Plexus hospitals and to decide what future projects could be collaborated on. As a result of IRIS, it was decided to define common care bundles for the prevention of catheter-associated urinary tract and blood stream infections and to determine hospital-specific actions with regard to the optimisation of AMS.

Mg2+ Doped ZCFAO Spinel Ferrite: Structural, Optical, Dielectric and Magnetic Explorations

AbstractA series of Mg doped ZCFAO (Zn0.3−xMgxCu0.7Al0.3Fe1.7O4 (0.05 ≤ x ≤ 0.25) spinel samples were synthesized by solid state reaction method. XRD, was utilized to investigate the structure phase, microstructural characteristics, The optical properties were analyzed; Biological instruments Sp-150 potentiostate is employed to investigate the dielectric measurements in the frequency range of 10 Hz to 1 MHz at various temperatures from 300 to 650 K. Vibrating sample magnetometer VSM was employed to examine the magnetic characteristics in the applied magnetic field ranging from − 20 to 20 kG. The creation of a single-phase cubic spinel was validated by X-ray analysis. The leverage of replacing Zn by Mg leads to enhancement in the lattice parameters, reducing both of the degree of inversion, crystal distortion and compelled these samples to be normal spinel. It turned out that as the degree of inversion sank, the crystallite size declined. The values of dislocations density was found in the order of 10−5 which reveal improving and completing the crystallization of the ferrite samples. The samples have an optical energy gap in the range 3.1–3.38 eV, according to the inferred optical characteristics. The dielectric constant revealed the normal behavior of spinel ferrite it decreases with increasing frequency and enhanced with increasing temperature. It seems that the microstructure of the compound consists of both high-conductive grains and low-conductive grain boundaries, which has been confirmed by the complex impedance. Additionally, the presence of the Maxwell–Wagner relaxation process is also detected. This information can provide valuable insights into the properties and behavior of the compound. Using Nyquist plot, the sample impedance characteristics were interpreted while taking grain and grain boundary contributions into account. The magnetic properties proved that doping ZCFAO with diamagnetic cations (Mg) increases both of saturation magnetization from 16.416 up to 29.983 emu/g and the magnetocrystalline anisotropic constant from 1319.24 to 1612.804 because the two main factors that influence the magnetic properties are the distribution of cations between the octahedral and tetrahedral sites and the magnetic moment of each of its cations. Novelty of our work replacing Zn by Mg (both of them diamagnetic materials) enhance the magnetic properties. Synthesized materials may reexamine the mechanisms underlying Mg2+ induced cationic exchange in ZCFAO and have prospective uses as soft-magnetic materials.

Correlation of Structural Changes and Hydrogen Diffusion in Polycrystalline WO3 Thin Films by Combining In Situ Transmission Measurements and Raman Spectroscopy

AbstractDiffusion in polycrystalline tungsten trioxide (WO3) thin films is studied in a lateral geometry to better understand the impact of hydrogen‐induced structural phase transitions on the diffusion. WO3 thin films are coated with polymethylmethacrylate layer (PMMA). The latter is microstructured in such a way that a narrow stripe‐like gap occurs in the PMMA layer exposing the surface of the WO3 thin film. This stripe serves as the contact to the electrolyte in the intercalation experiment with hydrogen. After intercalation, the lateral diffusion of hydrogen inside WO3 below the PMMA layer can be observed, increasing the analyzable path and time scale by several orders of magnitude compared to the film thickness, thus, significantly improving spatial and temporal resolution of in situ transmission and Raman measurements. Spatially resolved transmission measurements in the wavelength range of 633±55 nm show that the diffusion process is dependent on hydrogen concentration and exhibits two regimes describable by different diffusion coefficients. Time‐resolved Raman spectroscopic measurements at different distances from the electrolyte contact area show that the switching between the two diffusion coefficients occurs at the phase transition from the orthorhombic to the tetragonal phase. The results are further supported by a simulation. The measurement approach is universally applicable for electrochromic films or multilayers.

Characterization and performance of an upgraded front-end-board for NectarCAM

This paper presents an analysis of the updated version of the Front-End Board (FEB) for the NectarCAM camera, developed for the Cherenkov Telescope Array Observatory (CTAO). The FEB is a critical component responsible for reading and converting signals from the camera’s photo-multiplier tubes into digital data and generating module-level trigger signals. This study provides an overview of the design and performance of the new FEB version, including the use of an improved NECTAr3 chip with advanced features. The NECTAr3 chip contains a switched capacitor array for sampling signals at 1 GHz and a 12-bit analog-to-digital converter (ADC) for digitization upon receiving a trigger signal. The integration of the new NECTAr3 chip results in a significant reduction of NectarCAM’s deadtime by an order of magnitude compared to the previous version. The paper also presents the results of laboratory testing, including measurements of timing performance, linearity, dynamic range, and deadtime, to characterize the new FEB’s performance.

Free spectral range measurement based on a multi-longitudinal mode laser self-mixing ellipse fitting degree detection technique.

A method by detecting the ellipse fitting degree of the trajectory equation formed by two self-mixing (SM) signals in the multi-longitudinal mode laser SM system with a Wollaston prism is presented to test the free spectral range (FSR) of the laser. By utilizing the orthogonal vector and phase-shift characteristics between adjacent longitudinal modes, the fluctuations in multi-mode SM effects caused by changes in the external cavity length are transformed into alterations in the trajectory composed of two orthogonal SM signals. The FSR is calculated by detecting the difference in external cavity lengths between the two positions, where the trajectory of the two SM signals best fits an ellipse. To achieve an automatic FSR measurement, the ellipse fitting degree is proposed as the criterion for positioning the external cavity mode. Experimental results indicate that the FSR of the laser diode is measured to be 85.23 GHz with a resolution of 0.48 GHz, while the corresponding external cavity resolution is 10 µm, and the resolution of the ellipse fitting degree is less than 1. The compact and straightforward design, coupled with high sensitivity, automated measurements, and immunity to optical feedback, holds significant promise as a robust tool for measuring FSR and assessing laser performance.

Two-way ranging with carrier frequency and phase offset compensation based on software defined radio

In the context of Two-Way Ranging (TWR)measurements, distinct transmitter and receiver devices lead to discrepancies in clock timing, resulting in a Carrier Frequency Offset (CFO) and Carrier Phase Offset (CPO) that diminish the accuracy of distance measurements. Furthermore, moving objects also exacerbate these issues, increasing measurement errors. The effect of the CFO leads to variations and bit value inversion in the code in one frame when measuring two-way ranging distances with N random number sequence. In order to resolve this issue, the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is used in this work to determine the CFO and peak cross-correlation for the searching CPO. In outdoor experiments using Software Defined Radio (SDR) conducted over a maximum distance of 80 m, it was found that the precision of measurements was accurate within 1.25 m, and the overall accuracy was within 0.82 m when the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) was greater than 5 dB.

Systematic review of the impact of restrictive wildlife trade measures on conservation of iconic species in southern Africa.

Trade restrictions are often advocated and implemented as measures to protect wild species threatened by overexploitation. However, in some instances, their efficacy has been questioned, notably by governments in the southern African (SADC) region, which tend to favor a sustainable use approach to wildlife management. We conducted a systematic review of published literature guided by the PRISMA process to examine the effectiveness of trade restrictions and directly related control measures in addressing threats to species conservation in the SADC region, with a focus on elephants (Loxodonta sp.), rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum, Diceros bicornis), lions (Panthera leo), and pangolins (Manis sp.). We focused in particular on the direct conservation impact of trade restrictions at species or population level, indirect conservation impact at human behavior or attitude level, and socioeconomic impact on rural livelihoods and well-being and on national economies. Research on these topics was uneven and focused strongly on the effects of trade restrictions and law enforcement on crime-related behavior. Research gaps include socioeconomic impacts of trade restrictions, including effects of international restrictions on local livelihoods and consequent secondary conservation impacts, and evaluations of attempts to disrupt criminal networks. Based on the reviewed impact evidence, the effectiveness of international trade restrictions depends on a range of fully aligned measures in countries of origin, transit, and consumption. For example, our results suggest positive ecological short-term but negative or unknown long-term socioeconomic impacts of domestic restrictions. Based on these findings, key policy requirements include more nuanced approaches to incorporate a range of appropriate measures in range, transit, and consumer countries, that focus on capacity development for early detection and apprehension of incursions inside protected areas; measures for constructive engagement with relevant local communities outside protected areas; and future research to improve understanding of the socioeconomic contribution of wildlife.