Measures Of Reading Speed Research Articles

Enhanced detection of suboptimal effort in psychoeducational assessments for dyslexia

Objective: Although performance validity tests (PVTs) are routinely administered in neuropsychological evaluations, they are employed less frequently in assessments for specific learning disabilities such as dyslexia, likely due, at least in part, to the limited availability of PVTs to evaluate effort on measures of academic achievement. This is troubling, as previous research suggests that up to 24% of postsecondary students undergoing learning disability assessments produce noncredible test scores indicative of symptom exaggeration or low effort. This paper discusses normative data collected for the revised Dyslexia Assessment of Simulation or Honesty- Revised (DASH-R), a PVT developed specifically to identify symptom exaggeration or magnification during dyslexia testing. Method: We administered the DASH-R to three groups of students: honest responding controls (n = 48), students with documented dyslexia (n = 232), and students coached to simulate dyslexia (n = 42). Students were also administered measures of reading and processing speed. Results: DASH-R scores differentiated simulators from both honest responding controls and those with dyslexia. Further, ROC curve analysis showed that a composite feigning index score derived from the DASH-R could be used diagnostically to detect low effort; an optimal cut score of ≥4 on a seven-variable index yielded high specificity (≥98%) and good sensitivity (71%), with positive predictive accuracy of 86%. Creation of a 9-variable index that included errors on an additional reading test produced improved positive predictive accuracy to 96% while retaining excellent specificity (99%). Conclusions: The DASH-R appears to be a promising disability-specific measure for detecting feigned reading problems in young adults undergoing evaluations for dyslexia.

The Short-term Effect of Caffeine Consumption on Reading Performance

Objective: Caffeine, a widely consumed psychoactive substance, is recognized for its cognitive-enhancing effects, notably enhancing performance on tasks requiring narrative comprehension, where it has been shown to boost both acuity and speed. This study investigates the impact of caffeine intake on reading acuity and evaluates changes in reading speed post-caffeine consumption. Material and Methods: Employing a cross-sectional design, nineteen participants with distance best-corrected vision of 6/6 or better (equivalent to logMAR 0.00 or better) (mean age=22.5±1.00 years old) and near vision of 0.1 logMAR (N5) were recruited. Baseline measurements of reading acuity and speed were taken using the article sourced from Perpustakaan Tun Abdul Razak (PTAR) and Buari-Chen Malay Reading Chart (BCMRC) before coffee consumption, respectively. Participants consumed 200 mg of Nescafe Gold (caffeine) before the subsequent assessment. The time taken to read the reading materials was recorded, alongside any errors. Results: While reading speed significantly increased post-caffeine consumption (t=-7.536, p-value<0.001), reading acuity remained unaffected (t=-0.378, p-value=0.705). These results suggest a moderate dose of 200 mg of caffeine can enhance reading speed without compromising acuity in young adults.Conclusion: This indicates that caffeine mainly affects the rate of reading, while it does not alter the reading acuity of individuals.

Comparison of Near-Distance Reading Speed Based on the Intraocular Lens Type Using a Korean Reading Speed Measurement Application

Comparison of Near-Distance Reading Speed Based on the Intraocular Lens Type Using a Korean Reading Speed Measurement Application

Does the optimal level of illumination improve both visual functions and visual comfort in schoolchildren with low vision?

Lighting modification is commonly performed by optometrists and occupational therapists to enhance visibility and visual comfort among schoolchildren with low vision. The purpose of this study is to determine the optimal illumination level for visual function and visual comfort of schoolchildren with low vision and the relationship between them. A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess five levels of illumination ranging from 125 lux to 2000 lux to determine the optimal illumination for visual functions and visual comfort in schoolchildren with low vision from a special education school for blind in Malaysia. Purposive sampling was done to recruit forty-two schoolchildren with low vision for this study. Visual functions assessed were visual acuity, measured using the Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study LogMAR chart at distance and near, contrast sensitivity (CS) measured using the Pelli-Robson chart at distance and the Mars CS chart at near. Reading speed was determined using the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Malay Language Related Word Reading Text test chart. Subjects were asked to rate their visual comfort using a validated questionnaire at the end of each measurement of visual functions and reading speed for the different illumination levels. Visual acuity and contrast sensitivity at distance and near, visual comfort and reading speed improved significantly with increase in illumination levels (p<0.05). However, the interaction between illumination level and level of low vision was not significant (p>0.05). Visual comfort was significantly associated with visual function (p<0.05), while direct association between visual comfort and illumination level was not significant (p>0.05). Optimal illumination for improvement of visual function, reading speed and visual comfort range from 276.67 lux to 701.59 lux. Majority of the schoolchildren with low vision had improved visual function, reading speed and visual comfort with increased illumination. Illumination of at least 600 lux is recommended for maximum visual functioning and visual comfort of schoolchildren with low vision.

Flicker and reading speed: Effects on individuals with visual sensitivity.

Flicker and patterns of stripes in the modern environment can evoke visual illusions, discomfort migraine, and seizures. We measured reading speed while striped and less striped texts were illuminated with LED lights. In Experiment 1, the lights flickered at 60 Hz and 120 Hz compared to 60 kHz (perceived as steady light). In Experiment 2, the lights flickered at 60 Hz or 600 Hz (at which frequency the phantom array is most visible), and were compared to continuous light. Two types of text were used: one containing words with high horizontal autocorrelation (striped) and another containing words with low autocorrelation (less striped). We measured the number of illusions participants saw in the Pattern Glare (PG) Test. Overall, reading speed was slowest during the 60 Hz and 600 Hz flicker and was slower when reading the high autocorrelation text. Interestingly, the low PG group showed greater effects of flicker on reading speed than the high PG group, which tended to be slower overall. In addition, reading speed in the high PG group was reduced when the autocorrelation of the text was high. These findings suggest that uncomfortable visual environments reduce reading efficiency, the more so in individuals who are visually sensitive.

Reliability of a Tablet Computer-Based Dyslexia Screening Application Using an Eye-Tracking System

Purpose: The early detection and management of dyslexia are crucial for preventing irreversible educational gaps and various negative consequences for affected students. However, diagnosing dyslexia is challenging because it requires a comprehensive assessment. Dyslexia screening tests that utilize fast, automated, computer-based technology can be useful for early identification and management. In this paper, we introduce a tablet computer-based dyslexia screening application that uses an eye-tracking system and verify its reliability.Methods: The study included 200 participants between 8 and 13 years of age from an elementary school, all of whom underwent dyslexia screening tests twice. The screening was conducted using the VisualCamp SeeSo eye-tracking Android Software Development Kit v3.0.0, implemented on Samsung Galaxy Tab S5e tablets. The eye-tracking system measured reading speed by gaze, mean gaze fixation time, gaze fixation frequency, saccadic length, and regression ratio. To assess the reliability of the two sets of measurements, the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was employed.Results: Excellent reliability was found for measurements of gaze fixation frequency (ICC=0.83), gaze fixation mean time (ICC=0.82), and reading speed by gaze (ICC=0.76), and good reliability for measurements of regression ratio (ICC=0.75) and saccadic length (ICC=0.72).Conclusion: This study demonstrated that the tablet computer-based dyslexia screening application reliably measured eye movements in subjects with dyslexia. Furthermore, the application proved to be highly reliable and potentially suitable for use in clinical or school settings, eliminating the need for a laboratory environment and extensive equipment.

Psychometric analysis of the revised CompLEC test to measure reading speed and reading comprehension in university students

BackgroundAt university level, reading comprehension is one of the most important linguistic competences in the professional training of students because it is an instrument that enables the acquisition and production of scientific knowledge. Likewise, at this level of education, speed reading becomes a technique that allows to make the most of the time devoted to reading and to develop the ability to concentrate. However, there are not many instruments in the scientific literature that measure these two variables; therefore, the objective of this study was: To determine the psychometric properties of the revised compLEC test to measure reading comprehension and speed in university students.MethodThe study was conducted under the quantitative approach, applied type, with non-experimental design. The type of sampling used was non-probabilistic and the sample consisted of 441 university students of both genders. The instrument prepared and applied was the Reading Speed and Reading Comprehension Test for Higher Education, which is an adaptation of the CompLEC test.ResultsIn the study, all the items had values above 0.80, which shows that the items were rated positively in terms of pertinence, relevance, and clarity. It was also evidenced that the model of three related factors presents adequate fit indices (CFI = 0.91; TLI = 0.90; RMSEA = 0.034 [IC90% 0.021 ‒ 0.046]; SRMR = 0.072). On the other hand, only the Recovery dimension (ordinal α = 0.62) presented acceptable reliability indices.ConclusionThe results show that the Reading Speed and Reading Comprehension Test for Higher Education has adequate psychometric characteristics in terms of content validity and internal structure of the scale. However, further studies are required to confirm the reliability of the scale.

Nobinobi Yomikaki: Teaching Materials for Japanese Reading and Writing Based on 21st Century Skills

This study aims to determine the use of "Nobinobi Yomikaki" teaching materials developed as teaching materials for beginner level reading and writing courses towards the formation of 21st century skills in elementary level students. This is based on the needs for reading and writing teaching materials for first semester students, especially students who have never studied Japanese at all. Efforts to form 21st century skills are the focus as well as the basis for developing teaching materials because the demands of students to be able to survive and perform in the digital world, especially after the Covid-19 pandemic, realize how important non-technical skills are as technical skills. The research method uses a mixed approach, quantitative and qualitative. The quantitative approach was used to measure reading speed, which is a basic literacy skill, while the qualitative approach was used to describe the results of observations of how the use of this teaching material on the formation of 21st century skills. The research population is the 2022 batch of students in the Japanese Language Education Study Program at Universitas Negeri Jakarta, with a sample of 24 people, namely students who have never studied Japanese at all. Based on the study, it is known that the structure of teaching materials supports the development of 21st century skills, namely the ability to think critically, creatively, communicatively, collaboratively, and succeeds in fostering positive character so that in this digital era students are ready to become part of global citizens or digital citizens. And as the impact of these skills development, through the activities that force students to communicate their ideas both orally and in writing, their Japanese reading and writing skills also improved.

Reading Speed Using the International Reading Speed Texts in a Normal Canadian Cohort.

Background The International Reading Speed Texts (IReST) are commonly used to measure reading speed, which may be affected in many eye conditions. They were originally tested in a younger British population. Our study evaluates IReST in a normal Canadian population. Methodology A normal Canadian cohort in Ontario was prospectively recruited with age >14 years, education >9 years, English as the primary language, and best-corrected visual acuity >20/25 distance and >N8 near in each eye. Participants with eye conditions and neurological/cognitive problems were excluded. Each participant consecutively read two IReST passages (passages 1 and 8). Reading speed in words per minute (WPM) was calculated. One-sample t-test was used to compare our cohort to published IReST standards. Results A total of 112 participants were included (35 male, 77 female). The mean age was 40 ± 17 years (14-18 years: 12; 18-35 years: 34; 35-60 years: 53; 60-75 years: 13). The mean reading speed for passage 1 was 211 ± 33 WPM compared to the published IReST standard of 236 ± 29 WPM (p < 0.0001). The mean reading speed for passage 8 was 218 ± 34 WPM compared to the IReST standard of 237 ± 24 WPM (p < 0.0001). Thus, our cohort read slower for both passages compared to IReST standards. The mean reading speed for passages 1 and 8 was the highest for the 14-18-year (231 and 239, respectively) and the lowest for the 60-75-year group (195 and 192, respectively). Conclusions Normal older populations have slower reading compared to younger populations. The slower reading in our cohort may also be because the passages were in British rather than in Canadian English. It is important that the IReST is evaluated in different populations to ensure reliable comparison standards for future research.

New Italian version of the Wilkins Rate of Reading Test: Materials for repeated-measure designs in optometry and neuropsychological research.

To develop a series of equivalent passages of text in Italian, according to the principles of the Wilkins Rate of Reading Test (WRRT), suitable for both clinical examination and scientific research when equivalent stimuli are needed to compare performance in repeated-measure designs. Fifteen high-frequency Italian words (matched for grammatical class and length to the English WRRT) were used to generate 15 different 10-line meaningless passages, according to the design principles of the English WRRT. Thirty-two healthy Italian-speaking higher education students read the passages aloud according to a fixed randomisation schedule. Performance was recorded digitally to measure reading speed and accuracy offline. Equivalence between the passages and the practice and fatigue effects for both reading speed and accuracy were examined as well as test-retest reliability. No significant difference in reading speed and accuracy was found between the passages. There was a significant practice effect on reading speed but not accuracy, with the first presented passage read significantly slower than the others. There was no evidence of a fatigue effect. Reading speed, the reference metric for the WRRT, showed good test-retest reliability. The passages of the Italian version of the WRRT were equivalent to each other. The practice effect suggests that familiarisation with the test (i.e., reading at least one matrix of words) should be carried out before consecutive/repeated reading of different passages for experimental or clinical purposes.

Training peripheral vision to read: Using stimulus exposure and identity priming.

Reading in the periphery can be improved with perceptual learning. A conventional training paradigm involves repeated practice on a character-based task (e.g., recognizing random letters/words). While the training is effective, the hours of strenuous effort required from the trainees makes it difficult to implement the training in low-vision patients. Here, we developed a training paradigm utilizing stimulus exposure and identity priming to minimize training effort and improve training accessibility while maintaining the active engagement of observers through a stimulus visibility task. Twenty-one normally sighted young adults were randomly assigned to three groups: a control group, a with-repetition training group, and a without-repetition training group. All observers received a pre-test and a post-test scheduled 1 week apart. Each test consisted of measurements of reading speed, visual-span profile, the spatial extent of crowding, and isolated-letter profiles at 10° eccentricity in the lower visual field. Training consists of five daily sessions (a total of 7,150 trials) of viewing trigram stimuli (strings of three letters) with identity priming (prior knowledge of target letter identity). The with-repetition group was given the option to replay each stimulus (averaged 0.4 times). In comparison to the control group, both training groups showed significant improvements in all four performance measures. Stimulus replay did not yield a measurable benefit on learning. Learning transferred to various untrained tasks and conditions, such as the reading task and untrained letter size. Reduction in crowding was the main basis of the training-related improvement in reading. We also found that the learning can be partially retained for a minimum of 3 months and that complete retention is attainable with additional monthly training. Our findings suggest that conventional training task that requires recognizing random letters or words is dispensable for improving peripheral reading. Utilizing stimulus exposure and identity priming accompanied by a stimulus visibility task, our novel training procedure offers effective intervention, simple implementation, capability for remote and self-administration, and an easy translation into low-vision reading rehabilitation.

Adolescents reading texts in LexiaD, a dyslexia-specific Cyrillic font: A mobile eye-tracking study

Recently, LexiaD, a dyslexia-specific Cyrillic font, was tested alongside the widely used Arial font in an experiment during which adolescents with and without dyslexia silently read sentences on a computer screen (Alexeeva et al., 2022). LexiaD showed a worse performance than Arial at the beginning of the experiment, but by the end of it, LexiaD demonstrated a positive effect in feature extraction and similar performance in lexical access, text integration, and global reading processing. We suggest that Arial’s initial advantage can be explained either by its familiarity or by its design features. The current study aims to test these assumptions in adolescents without dyslexia by comparing LexiaD with two popular fonts familiar to adolescents: Times New Roman and Roboto (a default font for the Google applications that is similar to Arial). Participants silently read printed versions of three texts (one in each of the three fonts) while their eye movements were recorded using a mobile eye tracker (Pupil Core glasses). In reading speed measures, Roboto outperformed LexiaD, whereas we found no evidence that Times New Roman’s performance was better than that of LexiaD. Moreover, there was no evidence that the control fonts differed in terms of subjective font familiarity. Therefore, we speculate that it was the design features that contributed the most to Arial becoming a facilitating font in the previous experiment. A study that investigates the efficiency of LexiaD, Arial/Roboto, and Times New Roman in a less experienced group (with participants less accustomed to particular fonts) is required to replicate our results. Involving people with dyslexia in future studies is extremely important.

68‐2: Considering the Effects of Display Persistence on Eye Movements and Readability in Virtual Reality

We measured reading speed and oculomotor metrics in a novel saccadic rapid‐serial‐visual‐presentation task to understand how persistence affects common activities in head‐mounted displays. Surprisingly, we did not observe any effects of persistence on reading performance or oculomotor metrics. We discuss the implications for current and future VR and AR displays.

Mental imagery skill predicts adults’ reading performance

Mental imagery is foundational to human experience, lying at the heart of cognition and reading, however research has failed to conclusively investigate and demonstrate a link. Therefore, we conducted three studies measuring adults’ reading and imagery performance. In Study 1, the mental imagery skills of 155 adults were measured using two established self-report measures, namely the Plymouth Sensory Imagery Questionnaire (Psi-Q) and the Spontaneous Use of Imagery Scale (SUIS), and a novel imagery comparison task. In Study 2 (n = 452), a control for speeded processing replaced the SUIS. In Study 3 (n = 236), we added a measure of reading speed. Findings indicate that the objective measurement of mental imagery was associated with reading performance, whereas self-report measures were not. Further, reading comprehension linked more strongly to mental imagery than reading speed did. Findings demonstrate, for the first time, that mental imagery processes are intrinsically linked with reading performance.

The Correlation between Reduced Binocular Vision Function and Reading Ability in Elementary School Students in Greece

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to identify the correlation between visual performance and reading fluency, accuracy, and speed in elementary school students in Greece. METHODS: Examination procedures were approved by the Ministry of Education for the optometric team to enter the school premises and perform the assessments. The researchers performed optometric testing according to standard protocols to evaluate near point of convergence, oculomotor function, visual acuity, stereopsis, and accommodation and vergence facility. All results were compared with the reading ability using objective measurements of reading speed, number of fixations, and number of regressions while reading standardized Greek text. Results were analyzed with IBM SPSS Statistics 25.0 setting a value of p &lt;0.05 as the level of statistical significance. RESULTS: The 834 students that were examined came from a total number of 14 schools to enable socioeconomic stratification of high, medium, and low living standards. Study results showed a significant difference in reading speed between students who passed all visual performance tests and those who failed at least one. The number of failed vision tests was directly correlated with reading ability. Reduced reading speed and efficiency was directly correlated to the number of visual tests failed. CONCLUSION: Poor reading performance in elementary school students in Greece was correlated with reduced visual function. Results demonstrated undiagnosed binocular and oculomotor visual deficiencies impact reading ability. A high correlation was identified between the number of visual deficiencies identified with both reading speed and regressions.

The effect of web-supported accurate and speed reading development program on the readıng skills of primary school students

The main purpose of this research is to examine the effect of the Web-Supported Accurate and Speed Reading Development Program (ASRDP), developed by the researchers. For this purpose, “Experimental Model with Pretest - Posttest Control Group” was used in the research. The study group of the research consists of 2nd grade students (n=40) studying in Van. Experimental (n=20) and control (n=20) groups were chosen within the scope of the research. ASRDP, developed with Web-supported content developed by researchers, was applied to the experimental group along with the activities in the Turkish curriculum. The prepared program was implemented for 6 weeks, with 5 lesson hours per-week. The program prepared within the scope of the research was supported by a website (rumeysahoca.com). The data of the study were collected through reading speed measurements, correct reading level measurements and “Reading Skills Scale”. While collecting the data, two different types of texts were prepared as informative and narrative texts. The t-test was conducted to determine whether there was a difference between pre and post-tests. As a result of the research, a significant difference was found between the experimental and control groups in favor of the experimental group. In this respect, it is seen that the ASRDP has a positive effect on reading skills. The prepared site has been designed as a platform suitable for the use of students in this age group and open to development. In future studies, the effect of the program on reading skills can be tested at different grade levels.

Effect of age and font on reading ability

To inform our knowledge of the typographical variables of stroke weight, letter width, and letter spacing, and their effects on different age groups and reading scenarios, we used Radner Reading Chart, where we measured reading speed at different sizes, to compare the fonts KBH Text, KBH Display, and Gill Sans Light. The experiment showed that for older participants, reading Gill Sans resulted in faster reading speed compared to KBH Text. However, Gill Sans could not be recognized at small sizes by either the younger or older participants. For critical print size (CPS), older participants were better at reading small print sizes at a regular reading speed when the text was set in KBH Text than when it was set in Gill Sans. The findings indicate that older readers are more sensitive to font legibility differences than younger readers. We discuss the implications of different reading scenarios putting different demands on the fonts as well as the perspective of older readers benefitting from certain visual qualities of fonts.

Precision, reliability and application of the Wilkins Rate of Reading Test.

The Wilkins Rate of Reading Test (WRRT) enables rapid measurement of reading speed using text passages that have no semantic content and demand minimal word recognition skills. It is suited to applications where the primary interest is in the influence of visual and ocular motor factors on reading rate. We obtained estimates of precision and reliability of WRRT from four data samples (A-D) collected independently by the authors: (A) n=118 adults; (B) n=90 adults; (C) n=787 children; (D) n=134 children. Each participant was asked to read aloud as quickly and accurately as possible, for 1min, and results were recorded as number of words read correctly per minute (wcpm). Estimates of precision are given by the within-subjects standard deviation sw , and reliability by the intraclass correlation coefficient for single measurements r1 . For each sample these estimates were (A) sw =11.5 wcpm, r1 =0.85; (B) sw =3.8 wcpm, r1 =0.98; (C) sw =6.7 wcpm, r1 =0.93; (D) sw =6.2 wcpm, r1 =0.94. The reliability of WRRT reflects large variation in reading rate between individuals compared to within-individual variability, indicating that it is a good test for discriminating differences in reading speed between individuals. The precision of the test varies from 3.8 wcpm to 11.5wcpm among samples, and the pooled value of 7.2wcpm, provides a basis for setting a population-wide criterion for minimum detectable change of reading rate in individuals over time. Nevertheless, a preferable way of monitoring change in an individual would be to use a criterion determined from estimates of that individual's baseline variation in WRRT scores.

Improving Reading Outcomes Using Digital Reading Rulers for Readers With &amp; Without Dyslexia

Recent research reveals that what helps people with dyslexia can also aid the general population. We digitally recreate reading rulers traditionally used as visual aids by readers with dyslexia to study if they may assist all readers. We present Interlude Reading experiments run on crowdsourced participants (19 readers with and 26 without dyslexia). We measure reading speed impacts using three digital reading rulers (underline, gray-bar, and light-box), the standard mouse cursor, and none-at-all. Crowdworkers read passages normalized to a 12th-grade reading level in Open Sans on desktop computers in their everyday reading environment. The passages average 75-words, accompanied by two post comprehension questions. Results show we controlled for participants' comprehension, familiarity, and interest with reading passages. Our findings show that all participants benefited when using a digital reading ruler, gaining, on average, 86 words-per-minute when comparing their fastest reading ruler versus using none-at-all. Also, participants preferred the light-box in terms of enjoyment and ease of use. Readers without dyslexia read fastest using the gray-bar reading ruler or the mouse cursor, gaining 29 and 36 words-per-minute, respectively. Designers without dyslexia have created reading rulers similar to the gray-bar for readers with dyslexia. Notably, readers with dyslexia read fastest using reading rulers designed by dyslexic designers, gaining 23 words-per-minute with the underline, and read faster 62% of the time when using the light-box reading ruler. While readers with dyslexia read 23 words-per-minute slower on average with the light-box, those who read fastest gained 111 words-per-minute. The underline and light-box reading rulers are higher contrast visual aids than the mouse cursor or gray-bar. These results lay a foundation for collaborations where visual aids are co-developed using inclusive design practices to individuate reading rulers to augment human behavior, thus benefiting readers with dyslexia and the general population alike.

Challenges in Reading Arabic among Children with Dyslexia.

There are limited studies assessing reading performance and children's difficulties with dyslexia especially when reading Arabic, a language that has a substantially different script from English and other Latin-based languages. This study aimed to (1) measure reading performance in children with dyslexia by acuity level and (2) conduct an indirect comparison between the effects of dyslexia on Arabic versus English readers. Twenty children aged 9 to 12 years with dyslexia and 30 controls aged 9 to 11 years were included in the study. Reading performance was evaluated using maximum reading speed, reading acuity, and critical print size (CPS). Two Arabic charts, the Balsam Alabdulkader-Leat chart and the International Reading Speed Texts chart, were used to evaluate reading performance. The number of errors was calculated and plotted against print size. ANOVA revealed a significant difference between the two groups in all reading performance measures (P < .05). Reading speed for children with dyslexia was significantly lower than that for the control group (33 vs. 90 standard-length words per minute). Critical print sizes were 0.25 and 0.10 logMAR for children with dyslexia and the control group, respectively. Reading acuity was worse for children with dyslexia in comparison with the control group. Error number above the CPS was significantly higher in children with dyslexia than in the control group. Reading speed measures were lower for children with dyslexia compared with controls. Children with dyslexia required larger CPS to read at their maximum speed, indicating that larger print sizes may improve reading with greater speed. The difference in reading performance measures between controls and children with dyslexia is higher when reading Arabic than when reading English. This suggests that the intricate Arabic script and crowding may more strongly affect children with dyslexia reading Arabic.