Measures Of Word Reading Research Articles

Learning spellings and meanings: Longitudinal relations to reading

BackgroundProminent theories of reading make the prediction that individual differences in children's word learning capacity determine the pace of their acquisition of reading skill. Despite the developmental nature of some of these theories, most empirical research to date has explored the relation between word learning capacity and reading at a single time point. The present study extends this research base by investigating whether earlier learning of the spelling and meaning of words is associated with later core aspects of reading: orthographic representations, word reading and reading comprehension.MethodsParticipants were 120 English‐speaking children followed longitudinally from Grade 3 to Grade 4 (i.e., from 8 to 9 years of age on average). At Grade 3, children read stories containing new words and answered questions about the spelling and meaning of these new words, evaluating orthographic and semantic learning, respectively. Children also completed outcome measures of orthographic representations (with a choice task targeting the spelling of existing words), word reading and reading comprehension (with standardised tasks) at Grades 3 and 4. We conducted regression analyses controlling for age, nonverbal reasoning, working memory, vocabulary and phonological awareness.ResultsWe found that each of orthographic and semantic learning predicted gains in orthographic representations from Grade 3 to Grade 4. Furthermore, orthographic learning at Grade 3 predicted word reading at Grade 4, while semantic learning at Grade 3 predicted reading comprehension at Grade 4.ConclusionsThese longitudinal associations between orthographic and semantic learning and core aspects of reading strengthen the evidence in support of the hypothesis that children's word learning capacity plays a key role in reading development.

Receptive vocabulary is superior to education level to account for Black and White neuropsychological performance discrepancies.

To evaluate the impact of receptive vocabulary versus years of education on neuropsychological performance of Black and White older adults. A community-based prospectively enrolled cohort (n = 1,007; 130 Black, 877 White) in the Emory Healthy Brain Study were administered the NIH Toolbox Picture Vocabulary Test and neuropsychological measures. Group differences were evaluated with age, sex, and education or age, sex, and Toolbox Vocabulary scores as covariates to determine whether performance differences between Black versus White participants were attenuated or eliminated. With vocabulary as a covariate, the main effect of race was no longer significant for the MoCA, Phonemic Fluency, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, and Rey Complex Figure Test immediate and delayed recall. Although still significantly different between groups, the effect sizes for Animal Fluency, Trails B-A, Symbol Digit Modalities Test, and Rey Copy were attenuated, with the greatest reductions occurring for the Multilingual Naming Test and Judgment of Line Orientation. Findings support the value of using receptive vocabulary as a proxy for premorbid ability level when comparing the cognitive performance of Black and White older adults. The results extend investigations using measures of single word reading to encompass measures assessing word meaning.

Describing the Relationship Between Word Decoding, Oral Language, Phonemic Awareness, and the Orthographic Lexicon in the KTEA-3 and WIAT-4

Practitioners are encouraged to apply theories of reading development to psychoeducational test interpretation. Orthographic mapping provides an explanation of the acquisition of sight words. Although many test batteries provide tasks for practitioners to assess reading components associated with orthographic mapping, the relationship among components will vary across batteries and specific task demands that can impact their interpretation by practitioners. This study evaluated the effects of phonemic awareness and oral language skills on various indicators of orthographic mapping competence while controlling for word decoding skills in the standardization samples of the Kaufman Tests of Educational Achievement, 3rd Edition (KTEA-3) and the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Fourth Edition (WIAT-4). The WIAT-4 phonemic awareness subtest’s task demands and relationships between it and some measures of word reading conform to the phonemic proficiency hypothesis. We discuss implications for comprehensive psychoeducational assessment when evaluating student reading development.

Characteristics of Dynamic Assessments of Word Reading Skills and Their Implications for Validity: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Dynamic assessments (DAs) of word reading skills demonstrate strong criterion reference validity with word reading measures (WRMs). However, DAs vary in the skills they assess, their format and administration method, and the type of words and symbols used in test items. These characteristics may have implications on assessment validity. To compare validity of DAs of word reading skills on these factors of interest, a systematic review of five databases and the gray literature was conducted. We identified 35 studies that met the inclusion criteria of evaluating participants aged 4 to 10, using a DA of word reading skills and reporting a Pearson’s correlation coefficient as an effect size. A random effects meta-analysis with robust variance estimation and subgroup analyses by DA characteristics was conducted. There were no significant differences in mean effect size based on administration method (computer vs. in-person) or symbol type (familiar vs. novel). However, DAs that evaluate phonological awareness or decoding (vs. sound-symbol knowledge), those that use a graduated prompt format (vs. test-teach-retest), and DAs that use nonwords (vs. real words) demonstrated significantly stronger correlations with WRMs. These results inform selection of DAs in clinical and research settings, and development of novel, valid DAs of word reading skills.

Development of a machine learning algorithm to predict the residual cognitive reserve index.

Elucidating the mechanisms by which late-life neurodegeneration causes cognitive decline requires understanding why some individuals are more resilient than others to the effects of brain change on cognition (cognitive reserve). Currently, there is no way of measuring cognitive reserve that is valid (e.g. capable of moderating brain-cognition associations), widely accessible (e.g. does not require neuroimaging and large sample sizes), and able to provide insight into resilience-promoting mechanisms. To address these limitations, this study sought to determine whether a machine learning approach to combining standard clinical variables could (i) predict a residual-based cognitive reserve criterion standard and (ii) prospectively moderate brain-cognition associations. In a training sample combining data from the University of California (UC) Davis and the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative-2 (ADNI-2) cohort (N = 1665), we operationalized cognitive reserve using an MRI-based residual approach. An eXtreme Gradient Boosting machine learning algorithm was trained to predict this residual reserve index (RRI) using three models: Minimal (basic clinical data, such as age, education, anthropometrics, and blood pressure), Extended (Minimal model plus cognitive screening, word reading, and depression measures), and Full [Extended model plus Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) and Everyday Cognition (ECog) scale]. External validation was performed in an independent sample of ADNI 1/3/GO participants (N = 1640), which examined whether the effects of brain change on cognitive change were moderated by the machine learning models' cognitive reserve estimates. The three machine learning models differed in their accuracy and validity. The Minimal model did not correlate strongly with the criterion standard (r = 0.23) and did not moderate the effects of brain change on cognitive change. In contrast, the Extended and Full models were modestly correlated with the criterion standard (r = 0.49 and 0.54, respectively) and prospectively moderated longitudinal brain-cognition associations, outperforming other cognitive reserve proxies (education, word reading). The primary difference between the Minimal model-which did not perform well as a measure of cognitive reserve-and the Extended and Full models-which demonstrated good accuracy and validity-is the lack of cognitive performance and informant-report data in the Minimal model. This suggests that basic clinical variables like anthropometrics, vital signs, and demographics are not sufficient for estimating cognitive reserve. Rather, the most accurate and valid estimates of cognitive reserve were obtained when cognitive performance data-ideally augmented by informant-reported functioning-was used. These results indicate that a dynamic and accessible proxy for cognitive reserve can be generated for individuals without neuroimaging data and gives some insight into factors that may promote resilience.

Rapid automatised naming is related to reading and arithmetic for different reasons in Chinese: Evidence from Hong Kong third graders

BackgroundRapid automatised naming (RAN) has been found to predict children's reading and arithmetic abilities. However, the underlying mechanisms for its involvement in the two abilities are not clear. This study examines how RAN shared variances with domain‐general and domain‐specific abilities in predicting reading and arithmetic in Chinese children.MethodsOne hundred and sixty‐four children (mean age = 8 years 0 months, SD = 4 months) were administered with RAN tasks, word reading and arithmetic tasks and measures of working memory, processing speed, morphological awareness, phonological awareness and number line estimation.ResultsRAN mainly shared variance with morphological awareness in predicting word reading, while it shared variance with processing speed and number line estimation in predicting arithmetic calculation.ConclusionsThe findings indicated that RAN was related to reading and arithmetic for different reasons. The RAN–reading relationship partly reflected the semantic facilitation of the orthography–phonology links for both RAN stimuli and Chinese characters, while the RAN–arithmetic relationship partly reflected the shared process of retrieving semantic information from long‐term memory embedded in the two tasks.

A Potential Measure of Premorbid Functioning: Evaluating the Construct Validity of the Author and Magazine Recognition Tests.

To establish convergent and discriminant validity for a combined measure of print exposure (i.e., Author Recognition Test and Magazine Recognition Test [ART/MRT]) and assess its potential utility for estimating premorbid cognitive functioning. Community-dwelling older adults (N = 84; 95% non-Hispanic White) completed the ART/MRT, Test of Premorbid Functioning (ToPF), Dementia Rating Scale - 2nd Edition (DRS-2), Hopkins Verbal Learning Test - Revised (HVLT-R-DR), and select subtests from the Delis-Kaplan Executive Functioning System (D-KEFS) as measures of executive functioning (i.e., D-KEFS-EF) and processing speed (i.e., D-KEFS-PS). Pearson correlations and linear regressions were used to examine the relationships between the ART/MRT, cognition, and demographics. Cognitive scores, with the exception of HVLT-R-DR, were positively correlated with ART/MRT score such that better cognitive performance was associated with greater print exposure (range r = 0.39-0.49). ART/MRT score was positively correlated with years of education and negatively correlated with age. ToPF and DRS-2 differentially and uniquely predicted ART/MRT score beyond the other cognitive and demographic variables and beyond each other. Findings indicate that measures of print exposure reflect crystallized knowledge but may also capture fluid abilities that may be more vulnerable to age-related decline or neurodegeneration. Assessment of print exposure may offer an alternative to word reading measures that may be inappropriate for translation into other languages and for use with individuals with certain language difficulties.

Testing mechanisms underlying children's reading development: The power of learning lexical representations.

Prominent theories of reading development have separately emphasized the relevance of children's skill in learning (Share, 2008) and lexical representations (Perfetti & Hart, 2002). Integrating these ideas, we examined whether skill in learning lexical representations is a mechanism that might explain children's reading development. To do so we conducted a longitudinal study, following 139 children from Grades 3 to 5. In Grade 3, children completed measures of word reading and reading comprehension and again at Grade 5. In Grade 4, children read short stories containing novel words; they were later tested on their memory for the spellings and meanings of these new words, capturing orthographic and semantic learning, respectively. Using multiple-mediation path analysis, we tested whether children's skill in learning orthographic and semantic dimensions of new words was a mediator of individual differences in each of word reading and reading comprehension. In models controlling for nonverbal ability, working memory, vocabulary, and phonological awareness, we found two clear effects: individual differences in orthographic learning at Grade 4 mediated the gains that children made in word reading between Grades 3 and 5 and individual differences in semantic learning at Grade 4 mediated gains in reading comprehension over the same time period. These findings suggest that children's ability to learn lexical representations is a mechanism in reading development, with orthographic effects on word reading and semantic effects on reading comprehension. These findings show the power and the specificity of children's capacity to learn in determining their progress in learning to read. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Orthographic and Semantic Learning During Shared Reading: Investigating Relations to Early Word Reading.

Shared reading provides preschool-age children with the opportunity to learn novel, low-frequency words. Abundant empirical evidence demonstrates that children can learn the meanings of such words during shared reading, referred to as "semantic learning." However, less is known about whether children learn the spellings of words during shared reading, referred to as "orthographic learning," and whether this learning is related to early word reading. The present study tested relations between individual differences in 4- to 6-year-old children's semantic and, critically, orthographic learning during shared reading and their early word reading skill. In an adaptation of the self-teaching paradigm, children listened to a storybook about novel inventions referred to with nonword names. Children then completed orthographic and semantic choice tests, as well as standardized measures of early word reading and phonological awareness. Individual differences in orthographic, but not semantic, learning during shared reading were related to early word reading, after controls for age and phonological awareness. This study provides a novel test of learning during shared reading, helping to specify the relation between orthographic and semantic learning and early word reading skill. These findings hold implications for theoretical perspectives on relations between learning during shared reading and early word reading, as well as implications for educational practice. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.25492765.

Dynamic Assessments of Word Reading Skills in Diverse School-Age Children: A Meta-Analysis

Purpose: Dynamic assessments evaluate ability to learn and may be less biased against children who historically have underperformed on static measures that evaluate acquired knowledge. This meta-analysis examined the validity of dynamic assessments of word reading skills (phonological awareness, sound–symbol knowledge, and decoding), as measured by the strength of their correlation with performance on word reading measures. The consistency of their validity across participant reading status (typically developing vs. at risk), language status (monolingual vs. bilingual), and age group (4–5 vs. 6–7 vs. 8–9 years) was also examined to determine whether this assessment approach is an equitable means of evaluating early word reading skills. Method: Electronic databases and preprint repositories were searched to identify studies that evaluated dynamic assessments of word reading skills conducted with children between the ages of 4 and 10 years. Pearson's correlation coefficients representing the relationship between dynamic assessments and word reading measures were extracted, and an overall pooled mean effect size was calculated using a random-effects meta-analysis with robust variance estimation. Subgroup analyses for participant reading status, language status, and age group were also conducted to determine whether there were significant differences in effect sizes across groups. Results: Thirty-five studies with 192 effect sizes were identified. Overall, dynamic assessments of word reading skills demonstrated strong correlations with word reading measures ( g = 0.49). Subgroup analysis by age indicated that dynamic assessments are significantly better suited to evaluate word reading in younger children (ages 4–5 and 6–7 years) than older students (ages 8–9 years; p = .0001). Validity was consistent across typically developing and at-risk participants and across bilinguals and monolinguals. There were few studies conducted with bilinguals despite dynamic assessment's purported application for this population. Conclusion: This meta-analysis provides preliminary evidence to support dynamic assessments as a valid and equitable means of evaluating word reading skills with diverse children aged 4–7 years. Supplemental Material: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.25293046

An Extensive Reading Intervention for Emergent Bilingual Students With Significant Reading Difficulties in Middle School

This U.S. study evaluated the effects of a reading intervention for emergent bilingual students with significant reading difficulties in Grades 6 and 7 within a multisite randomized controlled trial. Emergent bilinguals were randomized to a researcher-provided intervention ( n = 171) or business-as-usual comparison condition ( n = 169). Results on a measure of word reading indicated significant differences favoring treatment after Year 1; however, there were no significant differences between groups on standardized measures of reading comprehension. Initial English vocabulary knowledge moderated reading comprehension scores at the beginning of the second year of intervention, indicating that students’ response to instruction varied as a function of their initial English language proficiency. The discussion focuses on interpreting these findings with an emphasis on improving the effectiveness of interventions for secondary grade emergent bilinguals with significant reading difficulties.

Reading Interventions for Students in Grades 3–12 With Significant Word Reading Difficulties

Most students with reading difficulties struggle to read words. We examined intervention effects for students with significant word reading difficulties (SWRD; standard score of 80 on at least one pretest measure of word reading), which includes individuals with or at risk for dyslexia. We investigated: (a) What are the effects of reading interventions for students in Grades 3–12 with SWRD? and (b) What intervention features (i.e., instructional components and elements of dosage) are related to improved reading outcomes for the target population? A meta-analysis of 22 studies and 208 effect sizes revealed a statistically significant, positive, mean effect (g = 0.14, standard error [SE] = 0.04, p = .01, 95% confidence interval [CI]: [0.04, 0.23]) of interventions for the target population. Subset analyses revealed positive, statistically significant intervention effects on measures of pseudoword reading (g = 0.38, SE = 0.07, p = .0003, 95% CI [0.21, 0.54]) and pseudoword reading fluency (g = 0.29, SE = 0.09, p = .010, 95% CI [0.09, 0.49]). Moderator analyses yielded statistically significant, positive effects associated with increased total hours of intervention, β = 0.003, SE = 0.0009, t(8.31) = 3.58, p = .007. Overall, findings indicate a need for interventions that improve generalized real-world reading for the target population.

63 Examining TOPF Performance in a Neurodegenerative Population

Objective:Cognitive tests on which performance is unrelated to brain pathology are considered “hold” tests and are often used to estimate cognitive abilities prior to injury or disease. Amongst the most commonly used “hold” tests are measures of irregular word reading, such as the Test of Premorbid Functioning (TOPF). Measures of irregular word reading assess ability to accurately pronounce phonetic irregularities based on prior experience and word knowledge, and tend to be insensitive to most forms of brain pathology (Lezak, 2012). However, research examining whether a relationship exists between neurodegenerative diseases and decline in irregular word reading is limited. The few studies completed have demonstrated a decline in irregular word reading in neurodegenerative disease in general (Berg, Durant, Banks, & Miller, 2016) and Alzheimer’s dementia specifically (McFarlane, Welch, & Rodgers, 2006). However, no known research has been published examining whether irregular word reading and TOPF scores differ depending on cognitive classifications commensurate with DSM-V diagnoses (i.e., mild or major neurocognitive disorder, etc.), or presumed neurological etiology.Participants and Methods:Patients were enrolled from the University of Colorado Hospital Neuropsychology Clinic. This study was a retrospective review of consecutive referrals over the age of 65 to the University of Colorado Hospital Neuropsychology Clinic from 2019 to present. The TOPF was administered along with a full neuropsychological battery and patients were clinically classified by severity of cognitive impairment (e.g., Normal, Mild Neurocognitive Disorder, Major Neurocognitive Disorder) and presumed neurologic etiology (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), vascular cognitive impairment (VCI), and mixed dementia (AD and VCI). TOPF Raw scores were used for all analyses. Correlation analysis was conducted to determine significant relationships between various demographic variables and TOPF performance. ANCOVA analyses were conducted to examine differences on TOPF performance by diagnostic classification and differences on TOPF performance by presumed neurologic etiology.Results:Correlation determined a significant relationship between TOPF performance and education (r = .51, p < .001), but not age (p = .092) or gender (p = .680). ANCOVA revealed a significant effect of TOPF performance on diagnostic group classification after controlling for education, F(2, 504)= 26.45, p < .001. Post hoc analysis revealed that those diagnosed with Major Neurocognitive Disorder performed the worst on the TOPF (M=39.801 ± .958), followed by those diagnosed with Mild Neurocognitive Disorder (M= 45.371 ± .767), while those diagnosed as cognitively normal performed the best (M= 49.826 ± .993). Additional ANCOVA analysis revealed a significant effect of TOPF performance on presumed neurologic etiology after controlling for education, F(3,148)=6.07, p = .001. Post hoc analyses revealed that participants with suspected AD (M= 40.728 ± 1.613) and those with suspected VCI (M= 32.804 ± 3.480) performed worse on the TOPF compared to those with suspected PD (M=46.964 ± 1.506), (p=.042 and p = .004, respectively).Conclusions:Results suggest that TOPF performance in older individuals is sensitive to cognitive impairment. Furthermore, these results suggest that this sensitivity may be further influenced by presumed neurologic etiology. These findings are consistent with prior studies which demonstrated a decline in irregular word reading in individuals with neurodegenerative diseases.

Evaluating Phonemic Awareness and Orthographic Mapping With the Woodcock–Johnson IV

Although phonemic awareness is an essential skill in learning to decode written words, practitioners may question which phonemic awareness tasks best operationalize their relationship with orthographic mapping, the process that converts a decoded word into one instantly recognized on sight. Tests from the Woodcock– Johnson IV were used to evaluate the effects of phonemic awareness tasks and vocabulary on measures of pseudoword decoding, word reading, and spelling in three age groups (ages 6 to 8, 9 to 13, and 14 to 19 years) within the WJ IV normative sample ( N = 4082). Results from path analysis indicated the effects of phonemic awareness tasks and vocabulary varied depending on age and reading task type with mixed results based on theoretical expectations. Results from the 9 to 13 age group appeared closest to conforming to hypotheses. We discuss implications of measuring phonemic awareness, reading, and spelling in the context of comprehensive psychoeducational assessment.

The Contribution of Phonological Processing to Reading and Spelling in Students With Cochlear Implants.

Children with cochlear implants (CIs) have difficulty with literacy, and although it is established that phonological processing underlies literacy skills in children with typical hearing (TH), the relation of phonological processing and literacy in children with CIs is not fully understood. This study evaluated the contributions of phonological processing to word-level reading and spelling skills of children with CIs. Thirty children with CIs and 31 children with TH in Grades 3 through 6 completed measures of word reading, spelling, and phonological processing. The contributions of phonological processing (phonological awareness, phonological memory, and phonological recoding) to reading and spelling were evaluated. Children with CIs scored lower across measures of reading, spelling, phonological awareness, and phonological memory, but not phonological recoding, than children with TH. Phonological processing components were significant predictors of reading and spelling for children with CIs but not for children with TH. This study underscores the important contribution of phonological processing, particularly phonological awareness and phonological memory, in literacy development for children who use CIs. These results suggest an urgent need for research into not only the underlying mechanisms that predict literacy outcomes but also evidence-based interventions to support these students' literacy.

White matter correlates of reading subskills in children with and without reading disability

Individual differences in reading ability are associated with characteristics of white matter microstructure in the brain. However, previous studies have largely measured reading as a single construct, resulting in difficulty characterizing the role of structural connectivity in discrete subskills of reading. The present study used diffusion tensor imaging to examine how white matter microstructure, measured by fractional anisotropy (FA), relates to individual differences in reading subskills in children aged 8 to 14 (n = 65). Findings showed positive correlations between FA of the left arcuate fasciculus and measures of single word reading and rapid naming abilities. Negative correlations were observed between FA of the right inferior longitudinal fasciculus and bilateral uncinate fasciculi, and reading subskills, particularly reading comprehension. The results suggest that although reading subskills rely to some extent on shared tracts, there are also distinct characteristics of white matter microstructure supporting different components of reading ability in children.

Self‐Regulation and Reading Comprehension: Integrating and Aligning to Improve Reading Outcomes

AbstractTwo potential pathways for improving reading outcomes for students with reading disabilities are presented: (a) systematically integrating self‐regulation instructional practices within reading interventions and (b) aligning small‐group reading intervention with core reading instruction to reduce the pressure on the executive system. Two separate studies conducted with fourth grade students with significant reading difficulties, one related to integrating self‐regulation within a reading intervention and one related to aligning core instruction and reading intervention, are presented. Similar to many past high‐quality studies conducted with older students with reading disabilities, results revealed no statistically significant differences on commercially developed measures of reading comprehension. However, results on standardized measures of word reading and text reading fluency and researcher‐developed measures of vocabulary and text comprehension underscore the promise of these approaches and support the notion that considering self‐regulation in the context of reading instruction may be a productive conduit for supporting the needs of students with significant reading difficulties.

Motivational Practices in Reading Interventions for Students With or at Risk for Dyslexia

The purposes of this study were to (a) describe the extent to which motivational practices are incorporated in foundational reading interventions for students with or at risk for dyslexia in kindergarten through Grade 5 (K–5) and (b) explore whether the presence and type of motivational practices (i.e., supports vs. strategies) within foundational reading interventions influenced the magnitude of the intervention effects on reading outcomes. We analyzed the same set of studies as Hall et al. (2022), who meta-analyzed experimental and quasi-experimental research of reading interventions implemented with K–5 students with or at risk for dyslexia from 1980 to 2020. Results of the current study show that only 44% of the interventions included motivational practices. The majority (84%) of those interventions addressed student motivation and engagement through motivational supports, such as game-like activities, paired work, and setting improvement goals. A much smaller percentage (16%) provided explicit motivational strategy instruction. Results indicated that reading interventions that include direct motivational strategy instruction tend to have larger effects on reading outcomes than both interventions without any motivational practices and those that include motivational supports only. The positive effect of motivational strategy instruction was stronger on measures of word reading than overall reading or reading comprehension outcomes. These findings highlight the need to address motivational challenges of students with reading difficulties and lend insight into how foundational reading skills interventions can be bolstered through incorporating motivational strategy instruction.

Effects of a Virtually Delivered Reading and Embedded Mindset Intervention on Reading Performance for Fourth-Grader Struggling Readers.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a virtual intensive reading intervention embedded with mindset training compared to typical reading instruction in a business-as-usual (BAU) condition delivered to fourth grade students with or at-risk for reading disabilities. After screening, the 59 participants were stratified and assigned randomly to condition. Highly trained interventionists delivered the intervention one-to-one with high fidelity and student engagement during the intensive intervention. Classroom teachers delivered the BAU. We examined the effects of the intervention on a variety of standardized timed and untimed measures of word reading and decoding, reading fluency, comprehension, and mindset. We addressed two research questions: What are the effects of intensive virtual reading intervention embedded with mindset training relative to a business-as-usual comparison (BAU) on the reading outcomes of fourth grade students with or at-risk for reading disabilities? Was initial mindset related to student response to intervention? Data analyses examined the main effect and moderation using linear mixed effects models. Significant differences in reading favored the virtual treatment condition for letter and word identification (g = 0.38). No other significant effects were observed. We note limitations in our study and offer directions for future research, including the need to explore additional moderators.

Vocabulary and reading comprehension: what are the links in 7- to 10 year-old children?

The aims of the present study are: (1) to examine the contribution that vocabulary makes to reading comprehension in the Simple View of Reading model in French-speaking children aged from 7 to 10 years based on the use of an index of efficiency (i.e., speed-accuracy index); and (2) to investigate the extent to which the contribution of vocabulary to reading comprehension might change according to children's school grade level. Measures of vocabulary depth, word reading (i.e., three levels of word representations, namely orthography, phonology, semantics), listening, and reading comprehension were collected using computer-based assessments in children from Grades 2 to 5 (N= 237). We examined the contribution of vocabulary in two contrasted groups: a younger group consisting of children from Grades 2-3 and an older group with children from Grades 4-5. A confirmatory factor analysis revealed that vocabulary is a factor separate from word reading, listening and reading comprehension. Moreover, the results from a structural equation modeling analysis showed that word reading and listening comprehension fully mediated the relation between vocabulary and reading comprehension. Consequently, vocabulary had an indirect effect via word reading on reading comprehension in both groups. Finally, word reading had a greater effect on reading comprehension than listening comprehension in both groups. The results suggest that word reading plays a central role in reading comprehension and is underpinned by the influence of vocabulary. We discuss the results in the light of the lexical quality hypotheses taken together with reading comprehension.