Measures Of Verbal Working Memory Research Articles

The Grenada Learning and Memory Scale: Psychometric features and normative data in Caribbean preschool children.

Neuropsychological assessment of preschool children is essential for early detection of delays and referral for intervention prior to school entry. This is especially pertinent in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), which are disproportionately impacted by micronutrient deficiencies and teratogenic exposures. The Grenada Learning and Memory Scale (GLAMS) was created for use in limited resource settings and includes a shopping list and face-name association test. Here, we present psychometric and normative data for the GLAMS in a Grenadian preschool sample. Typically developing children between 36 and 72 months of age, primarily English speaking, were recruited from public preschools in Grenada. Trained Early Childhood Assessors administered the GLAMS and NEPSY-II in schools, homes, and clinics. GLAMS score distributions, reliability, and convergent/divergent validity against NEPSY-II were evaluated. The sample consisted of 400 children (190 males, 210 females). GLAMS internal consistency, inter-rater agreement, and test-retest reliability were acceptable. Principal components analysis revealed two latent factors, aligned with expected verbal/visual memory constructs. A female advantage was observed in verbal memory. Moderate age effects were observed on list learning/recall and small age effects on face-name learning/recall. All GLAMS subtests were correlated with NEPSY-II Sentence Repetition, supporting convergent validity with a measure of verbal working memory. The GLAMS is a psychometrically sound measure of learning and memory in Grenadian preschool children. Further adaptation and scale-up to global LMICs are recommended.

Phenotypic subtypes of progressive dysexecutive syndrome due to Alzheimer's disease: a series of clinical cases.

Diagnostic criteria for a progressive dysexecutive syndrome due to Alzheimer's disease (dAD) were proposed. Clinical observations suggest substantial variability in the clinico-radiological profiles within this syndrome. We report a case series of 6 patients with dAD highlighting this heterogeneity. Average age at diagnosis was 57.3years, and patients were followed annually with clinical, cognitive, and multimodal imaging assessments for an average of 3.7years. Cases were divided based into three subtypes based on their pattern of FDG-PET hypometabolism: predominantly left parieto-frontal (ldAD), predominantly right parieto-frontal (rdAD), or predominantly biparietal (bpdAD) (n = 2 for each). Prominent executive dysfunction was evidenced in all patients. ldAD cases showed greater impairment on measures of verbal working memory and verbal fluency compared to other subtypes. rdAD cases showed more severe alterations in measures of visual abilities compared to language-related domains and committed more perseverative errors on a measure of cognitive flexibility. bpdAD cases presented with predominant cognitive flexibility and inhibition impairment with relative sparing of working memory and a slower rate of clinical progression. rdAD and bpdAD patients developed neuropsychiatric symptoms, whereas none of the ldAD patients did. For each subtype, patterns of tau deposition relatively corresponded to the spatial pattern of FDG hypometabolism. dAD cases could be differentiated from two clinical cases of atypical AD variants (language and visual) in terms of clinical, cognitive and neuroimaging profiles, suggesting that dAD subtypes represent clinical entities separable from other variants of the disease. The recognition of distinct dAD phenotypes has clinical relevance for diagnosis, prognosis, and symptom management.

Variation in Auditory Experience Affects Language and Executive Function Skills in Children Who Are Hard of Hearing.

Children who are hard of hearing (CHH) experience delays in spoken language and executive function, but the mechanisms for these deficits remain unresolved. Differences in auditory experience and language skills have been examined as contributing factors to deficits in executive function, primarily with children who are deaf and children with cochlear implants. The theoretical model of cumulative auditory experience quantifies auditory dosage as how much speech is audible and how often children wear their hearing aids. CHH with higher auditory dosage have better language outcomes than peers with less auditory dosage. However, the effects of auditory experience on executive function have not been studied in CHH. The goal of this study was to examine the influences of auditory experience and language skills on the development of executive function in CHH. We collected measures of aided speech audibility, hearing aid use, executive function, and receptive vocabulary in 177 CHH and 86 children with typical hearing who were 5- to 10 years old and matched for socioeconomic status and nonverbal intelligence. Auditory dosage was calculated by combining each child's average hours of hearing aid use with their audibility for speech to create a variable that quantifies individual differences in auditory access. CHH had lower receptive vocabulary and deficits in executive function related to working memory and selective attention compared to peers with typical hearing. CHH with greater auditory dosage had higher receptive vocabulary than CHH with lower auditory dosage. Better receptive vocabulary was associated with better scores on executive function measures related to working memory and attention. Auditory dosage was also directly associated with measures of verbal working memory. CHH have deficits in language and some, but not all, areas of executive function related to working memory and attention. Auditory dosage was associated with language abilities and verbal working memory. Language was associated with individual differences in executive function skills related to attention and working memory. These results provide support for systems theories regarding the development of executive function in CHH. Interventions that improve auditory access and language may be effective for improving executive function related to working memory and attention in CHH.

Oral and Written Language Abilities of School-Age Internationally Adopted Children from Eastern Europe

Purpose: Children adopted from Eastern Europe were assessed at ages 6 to 7 years and results were compared to the same children when they were 8 years. Patterns of relative strengths and weaknesses in language, verbal memory and literacy were analyzed. Variables that predicted reading and writing were determined. Method: Children adopted from Eastern Europe between 1;0 and 4;11 years of age were assessed at ages 6 to 7 years and age 8 years on a variety of tests that measured language, verbal memory and literacy. Results were compared across ages, and language, verbal memory and literacy domains. Results: Group means for all measures fell within the average range at both ages. The children's scores were not significantly different from test norms except for measures of rapid naming and number repetition. However, a larger than expected percentage of children scored -1SD below the mean on decontextualized measures of verbal working memory and reading fluency. At age 8 years 24% of children received speech language therapy services and 26% had repeated a grade level. Vocabulary, expressive syntax, verbal short-term memory and writing were areas of relative strength. Higher level vocabulary knowledge was strongly correlated with all literacy measures. Conclusion: As a group, Eastern European adoptees scored average on measures of language and literacy at 6 or 7 years and again at age 8 years. However, 26% of the children had repeated a grade and 24% were still receiving speech and language services. Vocabulary was an area of strength reflecting the children's enriched adopted home environments. In-depth knowledge of vocabulary was the best predictor of reading and writing. Some aspects of working memory were a strength but others were not. Rapid naming was also a weakness.

Working memory and fluid intelligence predict reading comprehension in school‐age children: A one‐year longitudinal study

SummaryThe present study analyzed the joint predictive role of verbal working memory (WM), verbal short‐term memory (STM), fluid intelligence, and intelligence mindset in reading comprehension, controlling for prior reading comprehension performance, in typically developing Spanish‐speaking school‐aged children. A sample of 83 children aged 9–10 years old were evaluated at fourth grade of primary school, with measures of verbal WM, verbal STM, fluid intelligence, intelligence mindset and reading comprehension; then with the measure of reading comprehension after 1 year, during fifth grade. Results showed that controlling for prior performance, verbal WM and fluid intelligence significantly predicted reading comprehension after 1 year, whereas verbal STM and intelligence mindset did not make a significant contribution. These results indicate that when jointly considered, a higher level of verbal WM and fluid intelligence in fourth grade is related to a better performance in reading comprehension in fifth grade. Possible explanations and implications of these results are discussed.

Relative Contribution of Verbal Working Memory and Attention to Child Language

It is common in intervention research to use measures of working memory either as an explanatory or a control variable. This study examines the contribution of cognitive abilities, including verbal working memory (WM) and attention, to language performance in first- and second-grade children. We assessed children ( N = 414) on two forms of verbal WM, one attention, and two standardized assessments of language. Scores from all three measures of cognitive abilities significantly predicted latent language (64% variance). Both verbal WM measures were stronger predictors of a latent language variable compared to attention. Exploratory analyses revealed differences in the role of cognitive variables to language subdomains. The findings deepen our understanding of the relative associations between verbal WM, attention, and language. We conclude that it is important to consider the language demands of tasks when making decisions about assessment of verbal WM, specifically in the context of intervention research in domains that require language.

The Visual Word Form Area compensates for auditory working memory dysfunction in schizophrenia

Auditory working memory impairments feature prominently in schizophrenia. However, the existence of altered and perhaps compensatory neural dynamics, sub-serving auditory working memory, remains largely unexplored. We compared the dynamics of induced high gamma power (iHGP) across cortex in humans during speech-sound working memory in individuals with schizophrenia (SZ) and healthy comparison subjects (HC) using magnetoencephalography (MEG). SZ showed similar task performance to HC while utilizing different brain regions. During encoding of speech sounds, SZ lacked the correlation of iHGP with task performance in posterior superior temporal gyrus (STGp) that was observed in healthy subjects. Instead, SZ recruited the visual word form area (VWFA) during both stimulus encoding and response preparation. Importantly, VWFA activity during encoding correlated with the magnitude of SZ hallucinations, task performance and an independent measure of verbal working memory. These findings suggest that VWFA plasticity is harnessed to compensate for STGp dysfunction in schizophrenia patients with hallucinations.

Visual-spatial and verbal abilities differentially affect processing of gestural vs. spoken expressions

ABSTRACT Listeners are sensitive to speakers’ co-speech iconic gestures. Concurrent visual and verbal information compete for attentional resources during multimodal comprehension. The current study examined the role of individual differences in visual-spatial vs. verbal abilities on individuals’ differential sensitivity to gestural vs. spoken expressions. Turkish-speaking adults (N = 83) were tested on their sensitivity to concurrent gesture vs. speech in an online task (Kelly, S. D., Özyürek, A., & Maris, E. (2010a). Two sides of the same coin. Psychological Science, 21(2), 260–267) and were administered spatial and verbal working memory measures. Participants were slower and less accurate when gesture and speech were incongruent to one another compared to the baseline condition, in which they expressed congruent information. People with higher spatial working memory capacity were more efficient in processing gestures whereas people with higher verbal working memory capacity were more sensitive to spoken expressions. These suggest that not all people are equally sensitive to co-speech gestures and some people may benefit more from gestures during comprehension.

The consistency and cognitive predictors of children's oral language, reading, and math learning profiles

Efforts to understand learning disorders in children by focusing on specific domains and within restricted ability ranges have failed to identify consistent and stable learning profiles. Given evidence for dimensional distribution of oral language, reading, and mathematical skills among those identified with and without learning disorders, examining learning across a range of abilities and domains should provide a better estimate of learning profiles. The present study examined the 1-year stability of cross-domain learning profiles and associated cognitive characteristics of 327 children. Results revealed highly stable profiles with 95% of participants remaining in the same learning profiles across data years. Generally similar performance across domains was observed for three profiles (below average, average, above average) comprising 63% of the sample, with relatively specific differences in oral language or reading characterizing the remaining profiles. Cognitive measures and teacher ratings accurately predicted learning profile in about 55% of participants either at the time of testing or in the following year. The most effective models for categorizing learning profiles all included teacher ratings of reading. Cognitive measures of verbal working memory, verbal intelligence, phonological awareness, symbolic comparison, and visuospatial working memory were also important contributors to classification. The findings indicate that examining learning across domains, abilities, and time has the potential to inform our conceptualization of learning disorders and associated cognitive strengths and weaknesses.

Selective updating of sentences: Introducing a new measure of verbal working memory

ABSTRACTWorking memory (WM) is one of the most studied cognitive constructs in psychology, because of its relevance to human performance, including language processing. When measuring verbal WM for sentences, the reading span task is the most widely used WM measure for this purpose. However, comparable sentence-level updating tasks are missing. Hence, we sought to develop a WM updating task, which we termed the selective updating of sentences (SUS) task, which taps the ability to constantly update sentences. In two experiments with Finnish-speaking young adults, we examined the internal consistency and concurrent validity of the SUS task. It exhibited adequate internal consistency and correlated positively with well-established working memory measures. Moreover, the SUS task also showed positive correlations with verbal episodic memory tasks employing sentences and paragraphs. These results indicate that the SUS task is a promising new task for psycholinguistic studies addressing verbal WM updating.

Self-reported inner speech in aphasia is related to phonological retrieval

Self-reported inner speech in aphasia is related to phonological retrieval

Verbal Working Memory in Older Adults: The Roles of Phonological Capacities and Processing Speed.

This study examined the potential roles of phonological sensitivity and processing speed in age-related declines of verbal working memory. Twenty younger and 25 older adults with age-normal hearing participated. Two measures of verbal working memory were collected: digit span and serial recall of words. Processing speed was indexed using response times during those tasks. Three other measures were also obtained, assessing phonological awareness, processing, and recoding. Forward and reverse digit spans were similar across groups. Accuracy on the serial recall task was poorer for older than for younger adults, and response times were slower. When response time served as a covariate, the age effect for accuracy was reduced. Phonological capacities were equivalent across age groups, so we were unable to account for differences across age groups in verbal working memory. Nonetheless, when outcomes for only older adults were considered, phonological awareness and processing speed explained significant proportions of variance in serial recall accuracy. Slowing in processing abilities accounts for the primary trajectory of age-related declines in verbal working memory. However, individual differences in phonological capacities explain variability among individual older adults.

Inattention, Working Memory, and Goal Neglect in a Community Sample.

Executive function deficits have been linked to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but it has been theorized that the symptom inattention is specifically related to problems with complex verbal working memory (WM). Using the Conners Adult ADHD rating scale, adults aged 18–35 were assessed for ADHD symptoms, and completed tasks designed to tap verbal and spatial aspects of WM (Experiment 1). Results showed that high inattention predicted poor performance on both simple and complex verbal WM measures. Results relating to spatial WM were inconclusive. In a follow up experiment based on the theory that those with inattention have problems receiving verbal instructions, a measure of goal neglect assessing integration of information into a task model in WM was employed (Experiment 2). Results showed that high inattention uniquely predicted performance on this task, representing the first reported association between inattention and the phenomenon of goal neglect. The results from both experiments lend support to the WM theory of inattention.

Limited Near and Far Transfer Effects of Jungle Memory Working Memory Training on Learning Mathematics in Children with Attentional and Mathematical Difficulties.

The goal of this randomized controlled trial was to investigate whether Jungle Memory working memory training (JM) affects performance on working memory tasks, performance in mathematics and gains made on a mathematics training (MT) in school aged children between 9–12 years old (N = 64) with both difficulties in mathematics, as well as attention and working memory. Children were randomly assigned to three groups and were trained in two periods: (1) JM first, followed by MT, (2) MT first, followed by JM, and (3) a control group that received MT only. Bayesian analyses showed possible short term effects of JM on near transfer measures of verbal working memory, but none on visual working memory. Furthermore, support was found for the hypothesis that children that received JM first, performed better after MT than children who did not follow JM first or did not train with JM at all. However, these effects could be explained at least partly by frequency of training effects, possibly due to motivational issues, and training-specific factors. Furthermore, it remains unclear whether the effects found on improving mathematics were actually mediated by gains in working memory. It is argued that JM might not train the components of working memory involved in mathematics sufficiently. Another possible explanation can be found in the training’s lack of adaptivity, therefore failing to provide the children with tailored instruction and feedback. Finally, it was hypothesized that, since effect sizes are generally small, training effects are bound to a critical period in development.

Comparison of Two Measures of Working Memory Impairments in 220 Adolescents and Adults With ADHD

Objective: This study tests the hypotheses that (a) adolescents and adults with ADHD score lower on two normed measures of verbal working memory, relative to their overall verbal abilities, than the general population and (b) a specific story memory test is a more sensitive and relevant measure of working memory impairment than a numerically based test. Method: Scores on normed story memory and numerical memory tests of 220 adolescents and adults with ADHD were corrected for the individual’s verbal abilities and compared with each other and national norms. Results: Participants with ADHD scored significantly below their verbal ability measure on both verbal and numerically based memory tests in comparison with national norms. Scores on verbal memory test were lower than scores for numerically based memory tests. Conclusion: This story memory test is a more sensitive measure of working memory impairments in adolescents and adults with ADHD than measures based on recall of numerical data.

Predictors of processing-based task performance in bilingual and monolingual children

In the present study we examined performance of bilingual Spanish-English-speaking and monolingual English-speaking school-age children on a range of processing-based measures within the framework of Baddeley’s working memory model. The processing-based measures included measures of short-term memory, measures of working memory, and a novel word-learning task. Results revealed that monolinguals outperformed bilinguals on the short-term memory tasks but not the working memory and novel word-learning tasks. Further, children’s vocabulary skills and socioeconomic status (SES) were more predictive of processing-based task performance in the bilingual group than the monolingual group. Together, these findings indicate that processing-based tasks that engage verbal working memory rather than short-term memory may be better-suited for diagnostic purposes with bilingual children. However, even verbal working memory measures are sensitive to bilingual children’s language-specific knowledge and demographic characteristics, and therefore may have limited clinical utility.

Variation in strategy use across measures of verbal working memory.

The working memory (WM) literature contains a number of tasks that vary on dimensions such as when or how memory items are reported. In addition to the ways in which WM tasks are designed to differ, tasks may also diverge according to the strategies participants use during task performance. The present study included seven tasks from the WM literature, each requiring short-term retention of verbal items. Following completion of a small number of trials from each task, individuals completed a self-report questionnaire to identify their primary strategy. Results indicated substantial variation across individuals for a given task, and within the same individual across tasks. Moreover, while direct comparisons between tasks showed that some tasks evinced similar patterns of strategy use despite differing task demands, others showed markedly different patterns of self-reported strategy use. A community detection algorithm, aimed at identifying groups of individuals based on their profile of strategic choices, revealed unique communities of individuals who are dependent on specific strategies under varying demands. Together, the findings suggest that researchers using common WM paradigms should very carefully consider the implications of variation in strategy use when interpreting their findings.

Treatment-Resistant Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Neurocognitive and Clinical Correlates

There are a number of studies examining clinical and comorbidity profiles among patients with treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder (TR-OCD); however, there have been far fewer investigations of neurocognitive function among such patients. Five patients with treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive symptoms underwent neurocognitive and clinical/personality testing. A number of TR-OCD patients met diagnostic criteria for major axis I disorders (particularly mood and anxiety disorders) as well as clusters A, B, and C personality disorders. TR-OCD patients demonstrated significant performance deficits on neurocognitive tests of visuospatial working memory, visuoconstructive ability, and executive control as well as one test of processing speed, but not a second, relative to healthy normative controls. TR-OCD patients and normative controls did not differ significantly on measures of verbal working memory, sequencing, figure copy organization, inhibitory control, and odor identification. In addition, TR-OCD patients were directly compared to five healthy controls evaluated in our laboratory for a separate unpublished study. TR-OCD patients demonstrated significant performance deficits on tests of visuospatial working memory, information processing speed, and executive control, and obtained substantially higher scores on dimensional measures of social anxiety and depressive symptom severity, but not schizotypal personality features. Group differences of tests of verbal working memory, inhibitory control, and additional tests of executive function were not significant. In summary, patients with TR-OCD presented with comorbid axis I conditions (primarily mood and anxiety disorders) and personality disorders. TR-OCD patients demonstrated deficits on some, but not all, tests of working memory and executive control. Neurocognitive test findings lend partial support to the hypothesis that right hemisphere (particularly dorsolateral-prefrontal, but not orbitofrontal) dysfunction is associated with TR-OCD, and a number of TR-OCD patients met diagnostic criteria for major axis I disorders (particularly mood and anxiety disorders) as well as cluster A, B, and C personality disorders further complicating treatment.

Assessing verbal functioning in South African school beginners from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds: A comparison between verbal working memory and vocabulary measures

This study investigated whether measures of verbal working memory are less sensitive to children’s socioeconomic background than traditional vocabulary measures. Participants were 120 school beginners, divided into high and low socioeconomic groups. The groups contained equal numbers of English first-language and second-language speakers. All were being educated in English. The results suggest that socioeconomic status accounts for considerable variance in vocabulary measures, while it explains only very small amounts of variance in working memory measures. In addition, the high socioeconomic group performed significantly better on the two vocabulary tests relative to the low socioeconomic group, while there were no significant differences between the groups on all but one of the four working memory tests. Working memory assessments appear to be less influenced by environmental factors and may constitute fairer forms of evaluation for children from differing socioeconomic backgrounds. As such, working memory measures may be a valuable supplement to psychoeducational assessment batteries.

Exploring Expressive Vocabulary Variability in Two-Year-Olds: The Role of Working Memory.

This study explored whether measures of working memory ability contribute to the wide variation in 2-year-olds' expressive vocabulary skills. Seventy-nine children (aged 24-30 months) were assessed by using standardized tests of vocabulary and visual cognition, a processing speed measure, and behavioral measures of verbal working memory and phonological short-term memory. Strong correlations were observed between phonological short-term memory, verbal working memory, and expressive vocabulary. Speed of spoken word recognition showed a moderate significant correlation with expressive vocabulary. In a multivariate regression model for expressive vocabulary, the most powerful predictor was a measure of phonological short-term memory (accounting for 66% unique variance), followed by verbal working memory (6%), sex (2%), and age (1%). Processing speed did not add significant unique variance. These findings confirm previous research positing a strong role for phonological short-term memory in early expressive vocabulary acquisition. They also extend previous research in two ways. First, a unique association between verbal working memory and expressive vocabulary in 2-year-olds was observed. Second, processing speed was not a unique predictor of variance in expressive vocabulary when included alongside measures of working memory.