Measures Of Self-regulation Research Articles

Why High School Grades Are Better Predictors of On-Time College Graduation Than Are Admissions Test Scores: The Roles of Self-Regulation and Cognitive Ability

Compared with admissions test scores, why are high school grades better at predicting college graduation? We argue that success in college requires not only cognitive ability but also self-regulatory competencies that are better indexed by high school grades. In a national sample of 47,303 students who applied to college for the 2009/2010 academic year, Study 1 affirmed that high school grades out-predicted test scores for 4-year college graduation. In a convenience sample of 1,622 high school seniors in the Class of 2013, Study 2 revealed that the incremental predictive validity of high school grades for college graduation was explained by composite measures of self-regulation, whereas the incremental predictive validity of test scores was explained by composite measures of cognitive ability.

Psychological well-being in Iraq and Afghanistan veterans: Risk and protective factors.

Much research on military veterans has focused on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other negative outcomes, with few studies of positive outcomes. This study focused on psychological well-being (PWB) in relation to PTSD symptoms and the additional risk factors of sleep problems and depression, as well as a protective factor, self-regulation. Two hundred thirty-eight student veterans completed questionnaires online, with 115 completing follow-up questionnaires 2 months later. Path analyses revealed significant associations of PWB with depression and self-regulation in expected directions within and across time points. Links of overall PWB with PTSD and sleep were mostly small and nonsignificant, but some differences were found for distinct domains of PWB. Finally, a significant interaction revealed that the negative association of baseline PTSD with 2-month PWB grew stronger as levels of self-regulation increased. This finding may indicate that higher scores on our measure of self-regulation reflected emotional overcontrol and rigidity, but further research that attempts to replicate these findings is needed. Overall, findings support the need for examining a broader set of risk and protective factors predictive of outcomes in veterans who served during the recent era of wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Effects of Cumulative Adversity on Preschool Self-Regulation and Student–Teacher Relationships in a Highly Dense Hispanic Community

Young Hispanic children make up an increasing percentage of children enrolled in preschools; however, little is known about the effects of adversity on their preschool outcomes. This pilot study uses descriptive, correlational, and hierarchical multiple regression analyses to explore the relationship between cumulative adversity, teacher-rated and observed measures of self-regulation, and student–teacher conflict in a predominately Hispanic preschool sample. More than 50% of preschoolers in the study had experienced at least one type of adversity. Results suggest that preschooler's exposure to cumulative adversities may negatively predict both teacher-rated child self-regulation and the student–teacher relationship, indicating that early adversity negatively impacts children's socioemotional skills as well as their relationships with their teachers. This pilot study supports the need for future research expanding on the role of adversity in the preschool context, particularly for Hispanic children.

Play it safe or play to learn: mindsets and behavioral self-regulation in kindergarten

Individuals hold different mindsets encompassing beliefs about trait stability (stable vs. malleable) and goal orientations (performance vs. mastery). These motivational beliefs affect behavioral self-regulation, which is an important predictor of school success and includes both executive functions (EF) and classroom behavioral self-regulation (CBSR). In this study, we examined the structure of mindsets in kindergarteners and the relations with EF and CBSR by interviewing 147 kindergarteners (51% female) aged 5 to 7 years (M = 6.47, SD = .39). We used a multimethod approach with self-report and direct measures of behavioral self-regulation, achievement, and a newly developed mindset scale. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed that trait beliefs and goal orientations represent two different but related motivational beliefs. Results indicated differential effects of trait beliefs and goal orientations on EF and CBSR: Children with a mastery (vs. performance) orientation showed better EF, whereas children with a belief in traits as malleable (vs. stable) showed better CBSR. Structural equation modeling showed significant indirect effects of both motivational beliefs on achievement, with EF and CBSR as mediators. Findings suggest that motivational beliefs are important in fostering behavioral self-regulation for successful adjustment to the demands of kindergarten.

ВДОСКОНАЛЕННЯ ВПЛИВУ ДЕРЖАВИ НА ФІНАНСОВО-КРЕДИТНЕ ЗАБЕЗПЕЧЕННЯ РОЗВИТКУ РИНКУ ЗЕРНА УКРАЇНИ

Дослідження присвячено обґрунтуванню заходів щодо вдосконалення державної фінансової політики й ухвалення адміністративних рішень, спрямованих на покращення фінансово-кредитного забезпечення розвитку ринку зерна.Здійснення модернізації інфраструктури ринку зерна потребує великих фінансових ресурсів. Їхню мобілізацію в сучасних умовах може реалізувати лише держава, котра здатна залучити всі важелі впливу державного управління. Наукові результати проведеного дослідження дали змогу обґрунтувати адекватні сучасним умовам відповідні заходи щодо вдосконалення фінансової політики й ухвалення адміністративних рішень, спрямованих на покращення фінансово-кредитного забезпечення розвитку ринку зерна і стимулювання соціально-економічного розвитку країни в цілому. Пропозиції рекомендовані до здійснення грошово-кредитної, бюджетної, податкової, інвестиційної, страхової політики та орієнтовані на утворення інститутів розвитку в рамках реалізації програмно-цільового методу і характеризуються раціональним поєднанням заходів державного впливу й ринкового саморегулювання.На сьогодні виникає гостра потреба щодо забезпечення агропромислового комплексу достатнім обсягом дешевих кредитних ресурсів. Важливим чинником цього в контексті здійснення грошово-кредитної політики є взаємодія Національного банку України і Уряду під час узгодження застосування інструментів грошово-кредитної політики і, перш за все, процентних ставок, обсягів та цільового призначення рефінансування, операцій на відкритому ринку. Одним із заходів стимулювання кредитної пропозиції для сільгоспвиробника з боку банківської системи передбачалося утворення державного земельного банку. Важливим чинником розвитку ринку зерна у країні могло би стати утворення також державного банку розвитку України, котрий став би внутрішнім кредитним емітентом і фінансовим агентом держави.З огляду на те, що інвестиції на селі мають і соціальну значимість, у галузь потрібні як державні, так і приватні капіталовкладення. Однією зі складових державної інвестиційної політики є сприяння зростанню обсягів приватних інвестицій. Від потоку приватних інвестицій у виробничу, транспортну, складську, переробну інфраструктуру також залежать перспективи розвитку ринку зерна. Стимулювати приплив приватних інвестицій, може державно-приватне партнерство як одна з найбільш розповсюджених серед економічно розвинутих країн система взаємодії держави та бізнесу.Важливим постає питання підвищення ефективності використання фінансових ресурсів, що виділяються державою на підтримку сільгоспвиробників. Для цього потрібно провести вдосконалення певних складових процесу страхування в сільському господарстві України.

Large-scale analysis of test–retest reliabilities of self-regulation measures

The ability to regulate behavior in service of long-term goals is a widely studied psychological construct known as self-regulation. This wide interest is in part due to the putative relations between self-regulation and a range of real-world behaviors. Self-regulation is generally viewed as a trait, and individual differences are quantified using a diverse set of measures, including self-report surveys and behavioral tasks. Accurate characterization of individual differences requires measurement reliability, a property frequently characterized in self-report surveys, but rarely assessed in behavioral tasks. We remedy this gap by (i) providing a comprehensive literature review on an extensive set of self-regulation measures and (ii) empirically evaluating test-retest reliability of this battery in a new sample. We find that dependent variables (DVs) from self-report surveys of self-regulation have high test-retest reliability, while DVs derived from behavioral tasks do not. This holds both in the literature and in our sample, although the test-retest reliability estimates in the literature are highly variable. We confirm that this is due to differences in between-subject variability. We also compare different types of task DVs (e.g., model parameters vs. raw response times) in their suitability as individual difference DVs, finding that certain model parameters are as stable as raw DVs. Our results provide greater psychometric footing for the study of self-regulation and provide guidance for future studies of individual differences in this domain.

The Mediating Effect of Self-Regulation in the Association Between Poverty and Child Weight: A Systematic Review.

Deficits in self-regulation (SR) have been proposed as a potential contributor to child overweight/obesity, a public health concern that disproportionately affects children living in poverty. Although poverty is known to influence SR, SR has not been considered as a potential mechanism in the association between poverty and child obesity. The aim of the current paper was to systematically review the current literature to determine whether SR is a viable mechanism in the relationship between child exposure to poverty and later risk of overweight/obesity. We systematically review and summarize literature in three related areas with the aim of generating a developmentally informed model that accounts for the consistent association between poverty and child weight, specifically how: (1) poverty relates to child weight, (2) poverty relates to child SR, and (3) SR is associated with weight. To quantify the strength of associations for each pathway, effect sizes were collected and aggregated. Findings from the studies included suggest small but potentially meaningful associations between poverty and child SR and between SR and child weight. The conceptualization and measurement of SR, however, varied across literature studies and made it difficult to determine whether SR can feasibly connect poverty to child obesity. Although SR may be a promising potential target for obesity intervention for low-income children, additional research on how SR affects risk of obesity is crucial, especially based on the lack of success of the limited number of SR-promoting interventions for improving children's weight outcomes.

Self-Regulation in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Challenges and Future Directions.

Self-regulation is developed early in life through family and parenting interactions. There has been considerable debate on how to best conceptualize and enhance self-regulation. Many consider self-regulation as the socio-emotional competencies required for healthy and productive living, including the flexibility to regulate emotions, control anger, maintain calm under pressure, and respond adaptively to a variety of situations. Its enhancement is the focus of many child and family interventions. An important limitation of the self-regulation field is that most empirical and conceptual research comes from high-income countries (HICs). Less is known about the manifestation, measurement and role of self-regulation in many collectivistic, rural, or less-developed contexts such as low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). This position paper aims to present an initial review of the existing literature on self-regulation in LMICs, with a focus on parenting, and to describe challenges in terms of measurement and implementation of self-regulation components into existing interventions for parents, children and adolescents in these settings. We conclude by establishing steps or recommendations for conducting basic research to understand how self-regulation expresses itself in vulnerable and low-resource settings and for incorporating components of self-regulation into services in LMICs.

Experimental effects of mindfulness inductions on self-regulation: Systematic review and meta-analysis.

Self-regulation is the control of aspects of the self to allow pursuit of long-term goals, and it is proposed as a central pathway through which mindfulness may exert benefits on well-being. However, the effects of a single mindfulness induction on self-regulation are not clear, as there has been no comprehensive review of this evidence. The current review synthesized existing findings relating to the effect of a mindfulness induction delivered in a laboratory setting on measures of self-regulation. Twenty-seven studies were included and grouped according to 3 outcomes: regulation of experimentally induced negative affect (k = 15; meta-analysis), emotion-regulation strategies (k = 7) and executive functions (k = 9; narrative synthesis). A mindfulness induction was superior to comparison groups in enhancing the regulation of negative affect (d = -.28). Executive-function performance was enhanced only when the experimental design included an affect induction or when the outcome was sustained attention. The effect on emotion-regulation strategies was inconclusive, but with emerging evidence for an effect on rumination. Overall, the findings indicate that, in the form of an induction, mindfulness may have the most immediate effect on attention mechanisms rather than exerting cognitive changes in other domains, as are often reported outcomes of longer mindfulness training. Through effecting change in attention, emotion regulation of negative affect can be enhanced, and subsequently, executive-function performance more quickly restored. The interpretations of the findings are caveated with consideration of the low quality of many of the included study designs determined by the quality appraisal tool. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Identity Processing Style and Depression: The Mediational Role of Experiential Avoidance and Self-Regulation

ABSTRACTThis study investigated the role experiential avoidance and self-regulation play in mediating relationships between stylistic differences in the way college students engage or attempt to evade the process of constructing a personal sense of identity and depressive symptoms. Two hundred seven 18- to 23-year-old undergraduate students completed measures of identity processing style, self-regulation, experiential avoidance, and depressive symptoms. Consistent with previous research, a diffuse-avoidant identity style was positively associated with depression, which was completely mediated by self-regulation and experiential avoidance. Contrary to prediction, an informational identity style was not directly related with experiential avoidance or depression. However, an informational style indirectly predicted low depressive symptoms via self-regulation. Unexpectedly, when the contribution of self-regulation was controlled, an informational style was positively associated with experiential avoidance, which indirectly predicted high depressive symptoms. The pattern of relationships was not moderated by the sex of the participants. Implications of the results for intervention programs and counseling practices that may enhance the mental health of college students are considered.

Abstract # 3090 Prospective effects of latent infection on self-regulation and executive function in older adults

Recent attention to the effects of latent infection on human brain and behavior has focused on the parasite Toxoplasma, which directly infects the brain, and herpesviruses, which infect diverse cells and also promote proinflammatory immunosenescence, which in turn could affect the brain. The present investigation tested prospective effects of baseline Toxoplasmaand cytomegalovirus (CMV) latent infection among 147 older adults (age 60–93 at baseline). Participants were administered a measure of self-regulation (BRIEF) and a battery of executive function tests semiannually up to 9 times. Multi-level models with administrations at Level 1 and people at Level 2 included baseline age, education, and administrations as covariates. CMV + status (79%) and CMV titers were associated with poorer self-regulation over the 4-year follow-up (status: t(637) = 2.58, p = .01; titers: t(284) = 2.75, p = .006). Log CMV titers also weakly predicted executive function (t(210) = 1.80, p = .07). Toxoplasma + status (23%) and log titers associated with poorer self-regulation, but only among women (status: t(137) = 2.07, p = .04; titers: t(139) = 2.00, p = .05). The proinflammatory immunosenescence associated with CMV may have implications for control over behavior and cognition with aging. Sex differences in the effects of direct infection of the brain by Toxoplasmasupport theories that posit non–hormonal mechanisms of latent infection such as interference with folate uptake.

A Preliminary, Randomized-Controlled Trial of Mindfulness and Game-Based Executive Function Trainings to Promote Self-Regulation in Internationally-Adopted Children.

Although many children adopted internationally show remarkable recovery once placed in families, as a group they continue to exhibit persisting developmental deficits and delays in self-regulation. The current study uses a stratified, randomized, controlled trial to evaluate the effects of mindfulness-based and executive function trainings (EFTs) on internationally adopted (IA) children's self-regulation, including effortful/inhibitory control, attention, delay of gratification, and emotion-regulation. IA children ages 6-10 years were randomized into mindfulness training (MT), EFT, or no intervention (NI) groups. The MT and EFT groups attended 12 one-hour group sessions. Ninety-six children (MT, n = 33; EFT, n = 32; NI, n = 31) completed the study and were tested on computerized and non-computerized measures of self-regulation. Compared with the NI group, the MT group improved delay of gratification, and the EFT group improved inhibitory control and selective attention. There was no effect of either intervention on emotion regulation. MTs and EFTs show promise for improving self-regulation in IA children.

A longitudinal comparison of learning outcomes in full-day and half-day kindergarten

In 2010, the province of Ontario introduced a new universal two-year play-based full-day kindergarten program. The authors exploited the phasing-in of this program over five years, allowing a natural experiment in which children from full-day kindergarten could be compared with those from half-day kindergarten in matched neighborhoods. Children (N = 592) were followed from kindergarten to Grade 2 with direct learning and self-regulation measures. Grade 3 wide-scale achievement test scores were available for 269 of the children. Results showed lasting benefits of full-day kindergarten on children’s self-regulation, reading, writing, and number knowledge to the end of Grade 2, including some benefits for vocabulary. Full-day kindergarten children were significantly more likely to meet provincial expectations for reading in Grade 3. The study points to the benefits of a play-based full-day kindergarten program and brings evidence to bear on the mixed findings in the research literature about the fade-out effects of full-day kindergarten.

Evaluating the viability of a structured observational approach to assessing early self-regulation

There is now clear evidence that young children’s abilities to self-regulate set in motion developmental trajectories that are longitudinally influential, that self-regulation is malleable in childhood with flow-on implications into adulthood, and that efforts to improve self-regulation are enhanced when tailored and adaptive to children’s developmental progress. Yet there are significant concerns regarding current approaches to assessing self-regulation, potentially limiting our capacity to respond to children’s needs and support their development. In response, this study examined the viability of a novel approach to assessing young children’s cognitive, behavioral, and social-emotional self-regulation that uses observer ratings in semi-structured activities. Eighty 3- to 5-year-old children were observed in their preschool in a small group task (a memory card game with other children) and in two individual tasks (an outdoor obstacle course and a curiosity box guessing game). Exploratory factor analysis of resultant Preschool Situational Self-Regulation Toolkit (PRSIST) assessment ratings yielded a two-factor solution which corresponded to cognitive and behavioral self-regulation. Comparison of these observation ratings with task-based (Head–Toes–Knees–Shoulders; HTKS) and adult-report measures of self-regulation (parent and teacher report on the Child Behavior Rating Scale; CBRS) showed strong association with HTKS scores and more modest relations with CBRS ratings. Unlike adult report, however, PRSIST and HTKS were also developmentally sensitive, both showed robust associations with children’s school readiness, and neither revealed systematic differences across genders. These findings offer encouraging support for the PRSIST approach, which has high ecological validity and direct relevance to those working with children.

Gender Differences in Social Mastery Motivation and Its Relationships to Vocabulary Knowledge, Behavioral Self-Regulation, and Socioemotional Skills

ABSTRACTThe present study investigated gender differences in social mastery motivation, vocabulary knowledge, behavioral self-regulation, and socioemotional skills and examined the relationships among this knowledge and these skills by gender. Participants were 134 Chinese children (68 boys, M age = 3.80; 66 girls, M age = 3.89) and their parents recruited through local kindergartens’ parent groups. The children were administered measures of social mastery motivation, vocabulary knowledge, behavioral self-regulation, and nonverbal intelligence. Parents reported their education level and children’s socioemotional skills. Research Findings: Results revealed that boys exhibited more social mastery interactions than girls, and girls showed better behavioral self-regulation and socioemotional skills than boys. Girls with higher social mastery interaction frequency demonstrated better vocabulary knowledge and socioemotional skills, whereas boys with higher social mastery interaction frequency showed lower behavioral self-regulation. Boys, who showed more positive affect during social mastery interactions, tended to have better expressive vocabulary, which facilitated their behavioral self-regulation. Practice or Policy: Findings highlight social mastery motivation as a potential factor that facilitates children’s early development, but it may contribute to boys and girls in different ways.

Predictors of physical activity among rural adults following cardiac rehabilitation.

Cardiac rehabilitation aims to reduce the likelihood of recurrent cardiac events through physical activity (PA) and education. There is limited understanding about the predictors of physical activity behavior in rural adults beyond rehabilitation. This study explored predictors of regular physical activity in rural adults, 6-12 months post cardiac rehabilitation. Research Method/Design: A self-report questionnaire (quantitative cross-sectional design) was mailed to a simple random sample of rural South Australians who previously participated in cardiac rehabilitation (n = 315). Regression modeling was adjusted for physical activity history and gender to examine psychological, social, and environmental predictors of (a) current leisure-time physical activity, self-reported through the Godin Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire expressed as the Leisure Score Index (LSI) and the weekly frequency of physical activity bouts that cause sweating ("sweat frequency"), and (b) stage of physical activity behavior change according to the Transtheoretical Model of Behavior Change ("Stage of PA change"). All measures of self-efficacy (barriers, task, and relapse), social assimilation, and self-regulation predicted LSI, whereas all measures of self-efficacy and self-regulation predicted both "Stage of PA change" and "sweat frequency." Self-regulation explained the highest percentage of explained variance in LSI (31.6%) and "sweat frequency" (12.5%). Home social support additionally predicted "Stage of PA change"; there were no environmental predictors of any of the outcome measures. Similar to urban populations, the predictors of post-cardiac-rehab physical activity among rural adults predominantly emanate from the psychological domain. Findings support the need to strengthen the focus of cardiac rehabilitation program design on self-management skills and behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Measurement of self-regulation in early childhood: Relations between laboratory and performance-based measures of effortful control and executive functioning

Effortful control (EC) and executive functioning (EF) are two focal constructs in the study of self-regulation in early childhood. Given a number of conceptual and empirical overlaps between EC and EF, this study examined the associations between commonly used laboratory and performance-based measures of EC and EF in early childhood. Children (N = 244; age 4–6 years) completed the Shape Stroop, Snack Delay and Toy Delay tasks, as well as the Conner’s Kiddie-Continuous Performance Task (KCPT). Partial correlations and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were conducted to assess the relations between performance on the EC and EF tasks and the factor structure of self-regulation. Convergent and divergent validity were found amongst the performance-based measures. In addition, results from CFA support a one-factor model of self-regulation with “hot” EC and “cool” EF loading onto a general self-regulation factor. Study results highlight the similarities that exist between EC and EF during early childhood and the need for integrative, whole-child approaches in order to understand the neurophysiological and behavioral underpinnings of self-regulation and its development.

‘Thinking Your Problems Away’: Can maths interventions be developed to address both the academic and affective aspects of learning in primary aged children?

AimThis study sought to identify the impact of a maths intervention aimed at enhancing performance, self-concept and self-regulation, while reducing negative emotional responses.MethodA quantitative, between-group repeated-measure experimental design was used to investigate differences between the groups over time. One-hundred-and-forty-four Year 4 pupils (mean age 8.09 years) from eight schools were matched and randomly allocated to intervention or waiting-list control groups. Trained Teaching Assistants delivered the intervention in small groups for four weeks. Performance, self-regulation, self-concept and anxiety in maths were measured pre- and post-intervention.FindingsMixed ANOVA found a significant difference in maths performance and in the strategising and focusing sub-behaviours of self-regulation. No significant differences in maths anxiety and self-concept were established, although exploratory investigation identified a significant impact on males’ maths self-concept.LimitationsThe placebo effect, variable delivery, alongside appropriate maths anxiety and self-regulation measures in this age group, potentially influenced the results.ConclusionsThe intervention indicates promising results with respect to maths performance; however further refinements of the affective elements are proposed. The negative relationship between maths self-concept and anxiety is discussed and practice implications are highlighted.

Self-Regulation and Executive Functioning as Related to Survival in Motor Neuron Disease: Preliminary Findings.

Disease progression varies widely among patients with motor neuron disease (MND). Patients with MND and coexisting dementia have shorter survival. However, implications of mild cognitive and behavioral difficulties are unclear. The present study examined the relative contribution of executive functioning and self-regulation difficulties on survival over a 6-year period among patients with MND, who scored largely within normal limits on cognitive and behavioral indices. Patients with MND (N = 37, age = 59.97 ± 11.57, 46% female) completed the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task as an executive functioning perseveration index. The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functions (BRIEF-A) was used as a behavioral measure of self-regulation in two subdomains self-regulatory behavior (Behavioral Regulation) and self-regulatory problem-solving (Metacognition). Cox proportional hazard regression analyses were used. In total, 23 patients died during follow-up. In Cox proportional hazard regressions adjusted for a priori covariates, each 10-point t-score increment in patient-reported BRIEF-A self-regulatory behavior and problem-solving difficulties increased mortality risk by 94% and 103%, respectively (adjusted HR = 1.94, 95% CI = 1.07-3.52; adjusted HR = 2.03, 95% CI = 1.19-3.48). In sensitivity analyses, patient-reported self-regulatory problem-solving remained significant independent of disease severity and a priori covariates (adjusted HR = 1.68, 95% CI = 1.01-2.78), though the predictive value of self-regulatory behavior was attenuated in adjusted models (HR = 1.67, 95% CI = 0.85-3.27). Caregiver-reported BRIEF-A ratings of patients and Wisconsin Card Sorting Task perseverative errors did not significantly predict survival. Preliminary evidence suggests patient-reported self-regulatory problem-solving difficulties indicate poorer prognosis in MND. Further research is needed to uncover mechanisms that negatively impact patient survival.

Inhibitory control in typically developing preschoolers: Relations among temperament, respiratory sinus arrhythmia, and behavior at age 4.

Although inhibitory control (IC) is associated with children's positive adjustment, we know relatively little about factors underlying its development. We examined whether baseline and on-task respiratory sinus arrhythmia [(RSA); a physiological measure of self-regulation] and private speech (a behavioral measure of self-regulation) interacted to confer differences on directly observed IC in 52 typically developing 4-year olds. We found that baseline RSA moderated the association between private speech and IC, such that private speech positively predicted IC in children with relatively higher baseline RSA, but was unrelated to IC in children with relatively lower RSA. We also found that children with a concordant physiological-behavioral pattern (i.e., high RSA and high private speech; low RSA and low private speech) had higher IC, higher effortful control, and lower negative emotionality than those with a discordant physiological-behavioral pattern (i.e., high RSA and low private speech; low RSA and high private speech). Individual differences in physiological and behavioral self-regulation indices may represent distinct regulation pathways that interact to confer differences in IC during the preschool years.