Measures Of Self-control Research Articles

The role of boredom proneness and self-control in the association between anxiety and smartphone addiction among college students: a multiple mediation model.

Smartphone addiction has been found to be a widespread public health issue, especially among youth. Previous studies reported a significant association between anxiety and smartphone addiction, but the underlying mechanism in this relationship is unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the mediating roles of boredom proneness and self-control in the relationship between anxiety and smartphone addiction. Self-reported measures of anxiety, boredom proneness, self-control and smartphone addiction were administered to 1,526 Chinese college students. Smartphone addiction scores varied between 10 and 60 with an average of 30.89 ± 10.57 points. Anxiety had a direct and positive effect on smartphone addiction (effect = 0.18, 95% CI = 0.11-0.25), and an indirect effect on smartphone addiction through boredom proneness (effect = 0.10, 95% CI = 0.06-0.15) and self-control (effect = 0.16, 95% CI = 0.13-0.20). Boredom proneness and self-control sequentially mediated the relationship between anxiety and smartphone addiction (effect = 0.12, 95% CI = 0.10-0.15). Anxiety is positively associated with smartphone addiction, and boredom proneness and self-control are important mediators in this relationship. Strengthening self-control and mitigating boredom could prevent smartphone addiction in anxious college students.

Determination of Digital Addiction and Digital Detox Awareness in Nursing Students

Aim: This study aims to determine the level of digital addiction, associated factors, and digital detox awareness of nursing students.
 Methods: The study population of the descriptive-correlational type research consisted of students studying in the nursing department of a state university. The study data were collected online, between April 28th and May 20th, 2021. "Personal Information Form" and "Digital Addiction Scale" were used for data collection. Research data were evaluated by numbers, percentiles, multiple regression, and logistic regression analysis.
 Results: Of the students, 64.5% was female, 27.5% was sophomore, and 72% was active social media users. Students' Internet usage time was 4.4±2.3 hours/day and social media usage time was 2.1±1.5 hours/day. It was found that 50.7% of the students did not know the concept of digital detox, and after this concept was explained, 50.9% did not want to perform digital detox in the next 6 months. The digital dependence of the students was determined as intermediate level (2.6±1.0). A maternal education level of secondary school and below, high income level, and poor academic achievement were found to be the predictors of digital addiction score, and not being a senior student, a paternal education level of high school and below, and not being aware of the concept of digital detox were found to be the risk factors for not being ready for a digital detox.
 Conclusion: Nursing students were found to have a moderate level of addiction according to their digital addiction score. The most remarkable finding for the concept of digital detox is that about half of students do not aware of this concept. Therefore, it seems that their awareness of an important measure of self-control in combating addiction is low.

A daily diary investigation of self-regulation in gambling.

Limit-setting strategies have the potential to assist in reducing problem gambling, but there is little research on self-imposed gambling limits and factors that restrain self-regulation once gambling has been initiated. Using daily diary approach, we investigated individual difference and proximal factors associated with gambling limit violations. Participants were 103 individuals who gambled regularly and had set a goal to limit their gambling. Participants completed a baseline measure of trait self-control and questions about gambling and limit violations over 21 days. We examined factors associated with setting and maintaining limits across episodes of gambling as well as within-person factors associated with limit violations, including the moderating role of trait self-control. We found that episodes of gambling where limits were set and violated were associated with riskier gambling and more negative emotional responses. In addition, gambling limits were more likely to be violated on days when temptations to violate limits were high and by people with low trait self-control, whereas urges to gamble were associated with a reduced likelihood of limit violations. Trait self-control moderated the relationship between daily stress/tension and limit violations. Low stress/tension was associated with greater limit violations for those with lower trait self-control, but the likelihood of violating limits increased on high stress days for those with higher trait self-control. Individuals may benefit from greater awareness of temptations to violate gambling limits and the impact of daily stressors, particularly for those with high trait self-control who are most successful when stress/tension is low. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The Effect of Self-Control on Loan Repayment Decisions of Women Market Vendors in Mbeya Municipality, Tanzania

Objective: This study aims to examine the effect of self-control on loan repayment decisions of women market vendors in Mbeya municipality, Tanzania. Design/Methods/Approach: This study employed a mixed research design. Primary data was collected via questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. A stratified random sampling technique was used to come up with a sample of 348 respondents selected from a population of 1741 women market vendors. Finally, descriptive statistics and regression analysis were utilized to process the collected data. Findings: The result of data analysis determined that self-control had a significant adverse effect on loan repayment decision Originality/Value: This study is unique since it studies self-control and loan repayment amongst women market vendors. The specificity of the set population allowed for a more in-depth and nuanced understanding of the experiences and challenges faced by this specific group of individuals hence deriving originality in this research. Practical/Policy implication: Findings are useful to policymakers and microcredit providers. Policymakers should promote activities and education that assist Tanzanians in attaining self-control. They should devise policies to make loans more affordable and easier to repay. Microcredit lenders should utilize subjective measures of self-control on loan applications as it is highly effective in enhancing repayment when coupled with high levels of financial literacy.

The Role of Impulsivity and Self-Control in Suicidal Ideation and Suicide Attempt

Two studies are reported examining the relation of self-control, as measured by self-report inventories, to indices of suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. In the first study (n = 113), self-control related significantly (p < 0.05) and negatively to both indices (r = -0.37 and r = -0.26), and, in a hierarchical regression analysis, added significantly to the variance in the suicidal ideation index accounted for by a measure of impulsivity. The second study (n = 223) replicated the findings of the bivariate correlations (r = -0.55 and r = -0.59) with the suicidality indices in the first study, both with the earlier measures and with alternative measures of self-control and impulsivity. Results indicated self-control added to the prediction of both indices and not just the ideation index. The second study also demonstrated that self-control acts as a moderator for perceived stress, a known risk factor for suicidality, such that, at low levels of perceived stress, there is little difference between those high and low in measured self-control, but that at high stress levels, those with high self-control had lower scores on suicidal ideation. The results are interpreted as showing that self-control is a protective factor for suicidality.

The many foibles of Likert scales challenge claims that self-report measures of self-control are better than performance-based measures.

Self-control and executive functioning are often treated as highly related psychological constructs. However, measures of each rarely correlate with one another. This reflects some combination of true separability between the constructs and measurement differences. Traditionally, executive functioning is objectively measured as performance on computer-controlled tasks in the laboratory, whereas self-control is subjectively measured with self-report scales of predispositions and behaviors in everyday life. Self-report measures tend to better predict outcomes that should be affected by individual differences in control. Our two studies show that the original version of Tangney, Baumeister, and Boone's brief self-control scale (consisting of four positive and nine negative items) strongly correlates with self-esteem, mental health, fluid intelligence, but only weakly with satisfaction with life and happiness. Four variants of the original scale were created by reverse-wording the 13 original items and recombining them to form, for example, versions with all positive or all negative items. As the proportion of items with positive valence increased: (1) the outcomes with strong correlations in the original scale weakened and the weak correlations strengthened and (2) the mean overall scores increased. Both studies replicated a common finding that the original scale yields two factors in an exploratory factor analysis. However, the second factor is generated by method differences, namely, having items with both positive and negative valence. The second factor is induced by the common practice of reverse-coding the items with negative valence and the faulty assumption that Likert scales are equal-interval scales with a neutral-point at midscale.

Cognitive fitness modulates gender differences in sleep and mental health among competitive athletes under chronic stress.

Objectives: Mental fitness is increasingly considered a key component of an athlete's competitive arsenal. Active domains of mental fitness include cognitive fitness, sleep, and mental health; and these domains can differ between men and women athletes. Our study investigated the associations of cognitive fitness and gender to sleep and mental health, and the interaction between cognitive fitness and gender on sleep and mental health, in competitive athletes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: 82 athletes competing at levels from regional/state to international (49% women, M-age = 23.3years) completed measures of self-control, intolerance of uncertainty, and impulsivity (together representing constructs of cognitive fitness), items about sleep (total sleep time, sleep latency, and mid-sleep time on free days) and a measure of mental health (depression, anxiety, and stress). Results: Women athletes reported lower self-control, higher intolerance of uncertainty, and higher positive urgency impulsivity compared with men athletes. Women reported sleeping later, but this gender difference disappeared after controlling for cognitive fitness. Women athletes-after controlling for cognitive fitness-reported higher depression, anxiety, and stress. Across genders, higher self-control was associated with lower depression, and lower intolerance of uncertainty was associated with lower anxiety. Higher sensation seeking was associated with lower depression and stress, and higher premeditation was associated with greater total sleep time and anxiety. Higher perseverance was associated with higher depression for men-but not women-athletes. Conclusion: Women athletes in our sample reported poorer cognitive fitness and mental health compared to men athletes. Most cognitive fitness factors protected competitive athletes under chronic stress, but some exposed them to poorer mental health. Future work should examine the sources of gender differences. Our findings suggest a need to develop tailored interventions aimed at improving athlete wellbeing, with a particular focus on women athletes.

Investigating differences in how parents and teachers rate students' self-control.

Supporting students' social-emotional learning (SEL) is gaining emphasis in education. In particular, self-control is a construct that has been shown to predict academic outcomes, though much debate on this point exists. Although largely unexamined, inconsistent findings could stem from the fact that related surveys are often scored by multiple raters (e.g., teachers and parents), especially when administered at a young age when students cannot respond to items themselves. Yet little is known about (a) how much parent and teacher self-control ratings overlap and (b) what student characteristics like race and socioeconomic status are associated with inconsistencies. In this study, we use data from a widely used measure of early self-control with parent and teacher forms. We use these data to examine the impact of rater discrepancies on our understanding of students' self-control. Results show relatively low agreement between parents and teachers, with some evidence that discrepancies are associated with student race. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

A Self-Controlled Mind Is Reflected by Stable Mental Processing

Self-control—the ability to inhibit inappropriate impulses—predicts economic, physical, and psychological well-being. However, recent findings demonstrate low correlations among self-control measures, raising the question of what self-control actually is. Here, we examined the idea that people high in self-control show more stable mental processing, characterized by processing steps that are fewer in number but longer lasting because of fewer interruptions by distracting impulses. To test this hypothesis, we relied on resting electroencephalography microstate analysis, a method that provides access to the stream of mental processing by assessing the sequential activation of neural networks. Across two samples (Study 1: N = 58 male adults from Germany; Study 2: N = 101 adults from Canada, 58 females), the temporal stability of resting networks (i.e., longer durations and fewer occurrences) was positively associated with self-reported self-control and a neural index of inhibitory control, and it was negatively associated with risk-taking behavior. These findings suggest that stable mental processing represents a core feature of a self-controlled mind.

Disordered gambling in a longitudinal birth cohort: from childhood precursors to adult life outcomes.

Despite its introduction into the diagnostic nomenclature over four decades ago, there remain large knowledge gaps about disordered gambling. The primary aims of the present study were to document the long-term course, childhood precursors, and adult life outcomes associated with disordered gambling. Participants enrolled in the population-representative Dunedin Study were prospectively followed from birth through age 45. Disordered gambling was assessed six times from age 18; composite measures of childhood social class, general intelligence, and low self-control were based on assessments obtained from birth through age 15; adult socioeconomic, financial, and legal outcomes were obtained through age 45. Lifetime disordered gambling was predicted from the three childhood precursors and the adult outcomes were predicted from lifetime disordered gambling. Past-year disordered gambling usually occurred at only a single time point and recurrence was relatively uncommon. Lower childhood social class, general intelligence, and self-control significantly predicted lifetime disordered gambling in adulthood. In turn, lifetime disordered gambling in adulthood significantly predicted occupational, educational, and financial problems in adulthood (ds = 0.23-0.41). These associations were markedly reduced and sometimes rendered nonsignificant after adjusting for childhood precursors (ds = 0.04-0.32). Socioeconomic, financial, and legal outcomes in adulthood are not merely consequences of disordered gambling, but also are predicted from childhood precursors. Deflecting the trajectories of young people at risk for developing disordered gambling may help to ameliorate not just the development of later disordered gambling, but also other associated adverse outcomes.

Control Issues: Examining the Relationship between Low Self-Control and Intimate Partner Violence for both Perpetrators and Victims

Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) low self-control theory is linked to individual-level non-violent and violent criminal offending. In this study, we examine secondary-data collected from a transnational sample of survey respondents (n = 17404) to test a predictive model of low self-control on outcomes related to intimate partner violence for both perpetrators and victims. We control for several variables related to socio-demographic characteristics, substance use history, and deviance history when we test our model using logistic regression analysis. The results from our analysis indicates that a unidimensional measure of low self-control is a consistent and statistically significant predictor of outcomes related to intimate partner violence, even when control variables are entered into the model. These findings have strong policy implications for identifying risk-factors and interventions associated with intimate partner violence.

Resisting vs. Persisting: Different Types of Self-Control Predict Different Outcomes Following Incarceration

Introduction: Trait self-control is one of the most robust predictors of important life outcomes. Recent evidence suggests at least two domains of self-control: inhibitory self-control (refraining from more attractive but goal-inconsistent behaviors) and initiatory self-control (engaging in and persisting in less attractive but goal-consistent behaviors). Methods: We examined longitudinal associations between these two self-control domains and subsequent post-incarceration behaviors in 492 jail inmates with a combination of self-reported questionnaires and official arrest records. Results: The two constructs were moderately associated, evidencing a similar-yet-distinct association of the same magnitude as depression and anxiety. Structural equation modeling demonstrated that inhibitory self-control uniquely predicted less recidivism and substance dependence, and better community adjustment. Initiatory self-control uniquely predicted less recidivism and better community adjustment. As expected, inhibitory self-control was a significantly better predictor of substance dependence than initiatory self-control. Discussion: These results have theoretical implications for the measurement of self-control and practical implications for the prediction of impactful post-incarceration behaviors and more precise interventions targeting specific self-control deficits.

A Question of Method and Subjective Beliefs

Abstract: Need for Cognition (NFC) describes the relatively stable intrinsic motivation to engage in cognitive endeavors. Recent research has revealed the importance of NFC for affective adjustment, especially in combination with self-control. We followed up on those findings by addressing methodological issues as well as processes that may underlie relations of NFC to self-control. Study 1 ( N = 102) examined whether NFC is associated with self-control independently of the measure or facet considered. Implicit willpower theories, that is, subjective beliefs concerning the limitation of self-control resources, were examined as a mediator for NFC predicting self-control. Higher NFC was associated with increased trait self-control but also with believing in unlimited self-control resources. The relation of NFC to willpower theories also mediated the prediction of trait self-control. Study 2 ( N = 188) replicated relations of NFC to self-control. We further pursued the explanatory approach from Study 1 and experimentally manipulated willpower theories to provide insight into their association with NFC. Willpower theories were related to NFC but had no mediating role in predicting self-control. The experimental manipulation had no impact on situation-specific NFC. Altogether, both studies provided first evidence that relations of NFC to self-control depend on the self-control measure and that willpower theories may be crucial for explaining the association with self-control.

The Italian Validation of the Brief Self-Control Scale: A Preliminary Analysis

The Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS) developed by Tangney, Baumeister, and Boone (2004) is a widely used measure of trait self-control. The present study aimed to validate Italian version of the BSCS. 262 Italian university students completed BSCS along with measures of grit, impulsive behavior, self-esteem, resilience, and psychological distress. 143 of the first sample completed BSCS after three weeks again. Results indicated that the Italian version of the BSCS is one-dimensional as the original BSCS. Good internal consistency and test-retest stability were documented. Convergent and divergent validity of the construct was established with the association between BSCS and measures of grit and impulsive behavior. Furthermore, predictive validity assessment showed that BSCS positively predicted self-esteem and resilience, and negatively predicted psychological distress as expected. In conclusion, findings suggest that the Italian BSCS is a reliable and valid instrument assessing trait self-control in Italian speaking populations.

Associations of Self-Control with Physical Activity, Physical Fitness, and Adiposity in Adolescents

The associations between self-control and objective measures of physical activity, physical fitness, and adiposity are yet to be explored in young people; this is a gap in the literature that the present study aimed to address. The study employed a cross-sectional design. A total of 101 young people participated in the study. Participants completed the Brief Self-Control Scale as a measure of trait self-control. Free-living physical activity was assessed using an ActiGraph GT3X + triaxial accelerometer, which was worn for 7 days. Participants also completed the 15-meter version of the multistage fitness test as a measure of physical fitness. For the assessment of adiposity, three criterion measures were used: body mass index (BMI), sum of skinfolds, and waist circumference. Data were analyzed using the glm function in the open access software R. Higher levels of trait self-control were associated with higher levels of physical fitness (measured by distance run on the multistage fitness test) and lower adiposity (BMI, waist circumference, and sum of skinfolds) in adolescents. There was a tendency for a positive association between self-control and time spent in vigorous physical activity, although this did not reach statistical significance. In a combined model, self-control was also associated with both physical fitness and waist circumference, with these effects independent of each other. These findings suggest that self-control is associated with healthy behaviors and characteristics in adolescents and is thus potentially an attractive target for future interventions aimed at increasing physical activity and physical fitness and reducing adiposity in this population.

Tracking Self-Control - Task Performance and Pupil Size in a Go/No-Go Inhibition Task.

There is an ongoing debate about how to test and operationalize self-control. This limited understanding is in large part due to a variety of different tests and measures used to assess self-control, as well as the lack of empirical studies examining the temporal dynamics during the exertion of self-control. In order to track changes that occur over the course of exposure to a self-control task, we investigate and compare behavioral, subjective, and physiological indicators during the exertion of self-control. Participants completed both a task requiring inhibitory control (Go/No-Go task) and a control task (two-choice task). Behavioral performance and pupil size were measured during the tasks. Subjective vitality was measured before and after the tasks. While pupil size and subjective vitality showed similar trajectories in the two tasks, behavioral performance decreased in the inhibitory control-demanding task, but not in the control task. However, behavioral, subjective, and physiological measures were not significantly correlated. These results suggest that there is a disconnect between different measures of self-control with high intra- and interindividual variability. Theoretical and methodological implications for self-control theory and future empirical work are discussed.

Do Rating and Task Measures of Control Abilities Assess the Same Thing?

The ability to control one’s thoughts and actions is broadly associated with health and success, so it is unsurprising that measuring self-control abilities is a common goal across many areas of psychology. Puzzlingly, however, different measures of control––questionnaire ratings and cognitive tasks––show only weak relationships to each other. We review evidence that this discrepancy is not just a result of poor reliability or validity of ratings or tasks. Rather, ratings and tasks seem to assess different aspects of control, distinguishable along six main dimensions. To improve the psychological science surrounding self-control, it will be important for future work to investigate the relative importance of these dimensions to the dissociations between self-control measures, and for researchers to explain which aspects of control they are studying and why they have focused on those aspects of control when one or both types of measures are deployed.

A single item measure of self-control – validation and location in a nomological network of self-control, boredom, and if-then planning

Self-control is a highly adaptive human capacity and research on self-control is booming. To further facilitate self-control research, especially in conditions where time-constraints might render the use of multi-item measures of self-control problematic, a validated time-efficient single item measure would be an asset. However, such a measure has not yet been developed and tested. Here, we address this gap by reporting the psychometric properties of a single item measure of self-control and by assessing its localization within a larger theorized psychometric network consisting of self-control, boredom and if-then planning. In a high-powered (N = 1553) study with paid online workers from the US (gender: 47.3% female, 51.7% male, 1% other; age: 40.36 ± 12.65 years), we found evidence for the convergent validity (Brief Self-Control Scale), divergent validity (Short Boredom Proneness Scale and If-Then Planning Scale), and criterion validity (objective and subjective socio-economic status) of the single item measure of self-control (“How much self-control do you have?”). Network psychometrics further revealed that the single item was part of the self-control subnetwork and clearly distinguishable from boredom and if-then planning, which together with self-control form a larger psychometric network of psychological dispositions that are relevant for orienting goal directed behavior. Thus, the present findings indicate that self-control can be adequately captured with the single item measure presented here, thereby extending the methodological toolbox of self-control researchers by a highly-time efficient measure.

Association between self-control and psychosocial outcomes in undergraduates

Objectives: To analyze how self-regulation processes can impact psychosocial outcomes in university students. Method: We investigated 215 participants. The Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, the Delaying Gratification Inventory, and the Ego Resiliency Scale were used as measures of self control. The psychosocial outcomes analyzed were stress (Cohen’s Perceived Stress Scale), quality of life (World Health Organization Quality of Life instrument-Abbreviated version – WHOQOL-Bref), and mental health (Self-Reporting Questionnaire-20). Results: Self-control measures correlated significantly with all outcomes. In a regression analysis, impulse control and ego resiliency were simultaneously associated with outcomes, while delaying gratification was not significant. Conclusion: Variables of self-regulation were predictors of mental health, stress, and quality of life in university students. These measures may be capable of indicating non-functional outcomes and/or protective factors, depending on how the subject reacts to the environment.

Consideration of future consequences and self-control mediate the impact of time perspectives on self-rated health and engagement in healthy lifestyles among young adults.

The study investigated how different time perspectives predict people’s self-rated health and engagement in healthy lifestyles, and explored the mediating effects of consideration of future consequences (CFC) and self-control as the underlying mechanisms. Young adults (n = 299, Mage = 23.65, ranges from 18 to 30 years old) completed measures of time perspectives, CFC, self-control and engagement in daily health behaviors. Generalized linear regression models showed that Past-Negative time perspective negatively predicted sleep quality; Future time perspective negatively predicted unhealthy eating patterns; Future time perspective was the only protective factor of risky drinking, while both Past-Positive and Future time perspective were protective factors of smoking. Mediation analyses showed that CFC-Immediate and self-control mediated the relationship between Future time perspective and eating patterns. Results suggested that consideration of future consequences and self-control partially explained how time perspectives affect engagement in healthy lifestyles among young Chinese adults. Implications of the current research for promoting healthy living and directions for future research are discussed.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-022-03135-6.