Animal Welfare Measures Research Articles

Cortisol analysis of hair of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

In addition to behavioral evaluations, stress assessments are also important for measuring animal welfare. Assessments of long-term stress are particularly important given that prolonged stress can affect physical health and reproduction. The use of hair cortisol as a marker of long-term stress has been increasing, but there has not yet been any report on the use of such methods with chimpanzees. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to establish and validate a methodology for analyzing hair cortisol in captive chimpanzees. In the first experiment, hair was removed from the arms of nine chimpanzees living in the Kumamoto Sanctuary (KS) and the regrown hair was sampled 3months later. Fecal samples were collected periodically during the hair-growth period. The results showed that hair cortisol level was positively correlated with the rate of receiving aggression. Although the correlation between hair and fecal cortisol levels was not significant, the individual with the highest hair cortisol concentration also had the highest fecal cortisol concentration. These results suggest that hair cortisol may reflect long-term stress in chimpanzees. In the second experiment, we investigated the physiological factors affecting hair cortisol concentrations. We cut hair from the arms, sides, and backs of 25 chimpanzees living at the KS and the Primate Research Institute. The results revealed that cortisol varied based on source body part and hair whiteness. Therefore, we recommend that hair should always be collected from the same body part and that white hair should be avoided as much as possible.

Burrowing is a sensitive behavioural assay for monitoring general wellbeing during dextran sulfate sodium colitis in laboratory mice

An impaired intestinal epithelial barrier is thought to be a major factor in the pathogenesis of human inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). IBD is frequently investigated by inducing a damaged barrier in murine models of colitis. This can be done by feeding mice with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) polymers in their drinking water. Refinement measures should focus on alleviating unnecessary suffering during this probably painful condition. Appropriate parameters are needed to decide when to terminate the experiments. Our aim was to investigate whether a change in burrowing behaviour is a sensitive measure of animal welfare in murine models of colitis. Acute colitis was induced in C57BL/6 mice with 2.0% DSS over nine days. The burrowing test is based on the species-typical behaviour of mice to spontaneously displace items from tubes within their home cage. As a burrowing apparatus, a water bottle (250 mL, 150 mm length, 55 mm diameter) filled with 138-142 g of pellets of the animal's diet was used. The presence of intestinal inflammation as a result of acute DSS-induced colitis was confirmed by a decrease in body weight, colon length and an increase of murine endoscopic index of colitis severity, histological score and spleen weight in the group receiving DSS as compared with the control group. An onset of intestinal inflammation correlated with a significant decrease in burrowing behaviour (P < 0.05). Altered adrenal gland histology indicated stress as a result of acute colitis. Our findings provide evidence that changes of spontaneous burrowing behaviour correlate with the onset of inflammation in acute DSS-induced colitis.

Development and Validation of a Scale to Assess Students’ Attitude towards Animal Welfare

This work presents the development of a scale of attitudes of secondary-school and university students towards animal welfare. A questionnaire was drawn up following a Likert-type scale attitude assessment model. Four components or factors, which globally measure animal welfare, are proposed to define the object of the attitude. The components are animal abuse for pleasure or due to ignorance (C1), leisure with animals (C2), farm animals (C3) and animal abandonment (C4). The final version of the questionnaire contains 29 items that are evenly distributed among the four components indicated, guaranteeing that each component is one-dimensional. A sample of 329 students was used to validate the scale. These students were aged between 11 and 25, and were from secondary schools in Aragon and the University in Zaragoza (Aragon's main and largest city, located in NE Spain). The scale shows good internal reliability, with a Cronbach's alpha value of 0.74. The questionnaire was later given to 1,007 students of similar levels and ages to the sample used in the validation, the results of which are presented in this study. The most relevant results show significant differences in gender and level of education in some of the components of the scale, observing that women and university students rate animal welfare more highly.

Determining adrenocortical activity as a measure of stress in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in relation to human activities in Serengeti ecosystem

AbstractAfrican elephants (Loxodonta africana) play a vital role in most African ecosystems, with their opportunity to alter the entire ecosystem by their sheer numbers. Defining and measuring animal welfare has been much discussed. One potential way of determining an animal's welfare is to record the absence or presence of stress. Little research on elephant welfare has so far been performed in the Serengeti ecosystem. The aim of this study was to record the faecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels of African elephants in areas with high or with minimum human interference. A total of 117 faecal samples were collected from randomly located single elephants as well as family herds in the northern, central and western Serengeti National Park (SNP) as well as in Grumeti Game Reserve and Ikoma Open Area, northern Tanzania in 2010. Elephants had higher levels of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites in the areas outside, compared with areas inside SNP. No single males were observed outside SNP, and in general, higher abundance of elephants was observed inside SNP. This suggests that elephants may prefer to reside in the potential safer areas inside the national park, demonstrating the importance of protected areas to improve the welfare of elephants.

Public Policy for Non-humans: Exploring UK State-wide Parties' Formative Policy Record on Animal Welfare, 1979–2010

This study uses mixed methods to explore the issue salience and policy framing of animal welfare in UK state-wide parties' Westminster election manifestos and parliamentary Early Day Motions. Over the past three decades there has been a gradual increase in salience, accompanied by a Left–Right cleavage. The latter is a function of contrasting framing practices and levels of political prioritisation. The Left exhibits a greater general propensity to advance animal welfare measures, whilst the Right is more reliant on the actions of individual MPs. Overall this study confirms that the status of animal welfare as a policy issue remains ‘fragile’; whilst no longer excluded from party programmes, significant further work remains before it is fully mainstreamed into the formative phase of policy-making in UK electoral politics.

Implementing animal welfare assessments at farm and group level: introduction and overview

Over the past decade there has been huge growth in the implementation of animal welfare assessments and audits in a variety of animal applications around the world. These include quality assurance programmes for meat, milk and eggs, certification for specialty brands or food-labelling programmes, accreditation of zoos, laboratories and animal shelters, and proofs of compliance with animal welfare standards required by regulatory agencies. Assessing animal welfare in such practical settings poses challenges at many levels. The animal welfare measures chosen for an assessment must be valid, repeatable and robust, and the sampling techniques must provide accurate representations of the overall welfare status of large groups of animals. Animal welfare assessors can come from a range of backgrounds with varying skill levels and experience and need to receive adequate training to ensure reliability. Although automated measures for animal welfare assessments can reduce potential for assessor error and bias, save time and reduce costs they must be sufficiently validated.

Measuring Animal Welfare within a Reintroduction: An Assessment of Different Indices of Stress in Water Voles Arvicola amphibius

Reintroductions are an increasingly common conservation restoration tool; however, little attention has hitherto been given to different methods for monitoring the stress encountered by reintroduced individuals. We compared ten potential measures of stress within four different categories (neuroendocrine, cell function, body condition and immune system function) as proxies for animal welfare in water voles being reintroduced to the Upper Thames region, Oxfordshire, UK. Captive-bred voles were assessed pre-release, and each month post-release for up to five months. Wild-born voles were captured in the field and assessed from two months post-release. Plasma corticosteroid, hydration and body condition of captive-bred voles differed between their pre-release measures and both their first (“short-term”) recapture, and their final recapture (“long-term” release), however only body condition and immunocompetence measured using the Nitroblue Tetrazolium (NBT) test were significantly different post-release between the first and last recaptures. Captive-bred animals had lower fat reserves, higher weight/length ratios and better immunocompetence (NBT) than did wild-born voles. Captive-bred males had higher ectoparasite burdens compared to wild-born males and, as reintroduction site quality decreased, became less hydrated. These observations indicate that some methods can identify changes in the stress response in individuals, highlighting areas of risk in a reintroduction programme. In addition, a single measure may not provide a full picture of the stress experienced; instead, a combination of measures of different physiological systems may give a more complete indication of stress during the reintroduction process. We highlight the need to monitor stress in reintroductions using measures from different physiological systems to inform on possible animal welfare improvements and thus the overall success rate of reintroductions.

Farm animal welfare across borders: A vision for the future

and willingness to pay for improved farm animal welfare infl uence not only international markets, but also i ncentives, education, guidelines, and legislation put in place to change the way we raise production species. These issues are highly pertinent for countries emerging on the global food market for several reasons. In rapidly developing countries, animal welfare standards are likely to be lower on the list of immediate concerns of the farmer, for whom availability and quality of animal feed, production yield and disease control may rank higher. Different production methods and use of indigenous breeds also infl uence the nature of the animal welfare measures that can be applied. Cultural differences in the treatment of animals may require changes to existing farm animal welfare protocols before they can be implemented. Also, the lack of control systems to ensure the proper implementation of guidelines and legislation regarding farm animal welfare may impede the marketing and potential added value of the resulting products. In this article, we look at farm animal welfare from the viewpoints of two countries, which differ in a number of aspects: China, as representing a rapidly developing country, and Denmark as a country with a highly developed organization of farm animal welfare standards. We use pigs and poultry as examples of production animals, where animal welfare problems, improvements and legislation exist. We strongly believe that many of the issues raised in this article are relevant to both developed and rapidly developing countries in general. There is a potential risk of “western arrogance” if ready-made standards are imposed onto scenarios that in reality are very different from those in which those standards were developed. We therefore hope this article will give the reader an opportunity to ponder on this particular subject. Are we seeing problems where none exist? And can one country really learn from the mistakes of another? This paper does not attempt to give “The Solution,” but to highlight the lessons to be learned, foresee some of the likely hurdles, and suggest potential fi rst steps.

The use of a single empirical outcome measure to assess welfare in slaughter plants: between- and within-sector comparisons of the supply base for a major retail multiple

AbstractThe objective of the present retrospective analysis was to review between- and within-sector variations in an outcome-based measure of animal welfare throughout slaughterhouses that currently supply to Tesco Stores Ltd, UK. Non-conformances in relation to individual scheme standards were designated a specific level in terms of severity and frequency and from this a single outcome status, based on a ‘traffic-light’ system is assigned to the site (which informs both subsequent corrective action and future inspection frequency). Sector-specific, country and time differences were found and underlying contributory factors and associated commercial implications are reviewed.

Repeated locomotion scoring of a sow herd to measure lameness: consistency over time, the effect of sow characteristics and inter-observer reliability

AbstractInvestigating variability of scores between different observers, between animals and over time aids the design of valid sampling methodologies for measuring animal welfare. Locomotion scores (0 to 5 scale) were collected: i) from 154 sows in one herd, using three to five observers each time, and scoring sows on up to ten occasions over a 19-month period; and ii) for 123 of these sows, locomotion scoring also took place prior to farrowing and at weaning. The distribution of scores was highly skewed towards low scores (0: 84.8%, 1: 9.5%, 2:4.0%, 3+: 1.7%). Sows showed moderate consistency in their scores over time and later parity sows had higher scores, but there was no effect of stage in the reproductive cycle (days pregnant, pre-farrowing, post-weaning). This suggests that infrequent visits to a farm (eg annual) might provide an accurate estimate of the extent of lameness if a representative range of parities was sampled, although a larger study of more farms would be required to investigate this. The three different types of agreement between observers (absolute differences, matching and association) were assessed as follows: i) analysis of absolute differences between observers showed that the farm manager scored lower than researchers/technicians; ii) exact matching approaches suggested fair or good agreement — agreement was poorest for mild gait abnormalities (score 1 ‘stiff’), and agreement improved if scores were combined into ‘sound’ (0-1) and ‘lame’ (2-5) categories; and iii) measures of association suggested moderate agreement. Inter-observer reliability improved over time until the 5th scoring event. To improve inter-observer agreement, observer training/practice and the use of fewer categories are recommended, and inter-observer agreement should be checked regularly.

Meat inspection and animal welfare practices: Evidences from north-western Himalayan region, India

Aim: The present study was conducted to assess the animal welfare measures for safe and wholesome meat production as well to understand different roles performed by delegated institutions in ensuring quality meat production. Materials and Methods: Semi-structured interview schedule was administered to 40 butchers and 40 veterinary officers of state department of animal husbandry, Himachal Pradesh. Result: It was found that open slaughtering was common (87.50%), animals did not have sufficient water provisions and often the lairage premises were devoid of adequate light thereby making ante-mortem and post mortem inspection difficult. Off feeding, offering potable water to animals before slaughtering was also less followed practice. Therefore, many a times the welfare of animals was not taken into consideration. Regular meat inspection was performed as an additional duty, by few (22.50%) veterinarians only. It was found that veterinarian's role was restricted to meat inspection only. The issue of license for slaughtering activities was the responsibility of district administration/municipal bodies. Conclusion: The study recommends appropriate legislations for greater role of veterinarians so as to promote quality meat hygienic practices thereby promoting animal and human welfare.

A scenario analysis on the implementation of a farm animal welfare assessment system

AbstractThere have been important developments in the measurement of farm animal welfare in recent years. Measuring animal welfare is one thing, implementing a farm animal welfare assessment system another. The implementation of such a system occurs in an environment that is influenced by economic, political, technological and socio-cultural factors which interact with each other. This creates enormous complexity, generates a huge number of different potential ‘futures’, and makes the eventual impact that the system will have on the welfare of farm animals uncertain. This article draws upon strategic management literature to apply scenario analysis as a technique to help understand the variance of the uncertainty associated with the implementation of an animal welfare assessment scheme. Specifically, it develops two extreme scenarios based on a theoretical European-wide implementation: one scenario in which all uncertain factors influence the implementation of the assessment system in a negative way, and one scenario in which all these factors have positive impacts. These scenarios provide insight into the variance of possible futures in which the system may have to function. Although consumers are an important stakeholder group, their role in creating uncertainty for the system may be overestimated; it is apparent that the roles of companies, brands and certification organisations deserve significant attention, as well as any relevant institutional structure.

Willingness to pay for other species' well-being

Benefit-cost analysis of environmental policies typically focuses on benefits to human health and well-being. For other species, economists have attempted to measure human WTP for changes in the numbers of individuals for different types of wildlife, and to preserve biodiversity. When it comes to humans' WTP for improvements in the quality-of-life for other species, however, the evidence is limited. Morbidity and quality-of-life considerations may be particularly important to the task of valuing non-fatal harm to wildlife in the wake of an environmental disaster. We argue that the other species morbidity-reduction component of WTP should be calculated net of any “outrage” component associated with the cause of the harm. This net WTP is likely to be correlated with the premium that people are willing to pay for chicken products from birds for which the quality-of-life has been enhanced by improved animal welfare measures. This paper uses a conjoint choice stated preference survey to reveal the nature of systematic heterogeneity in preferences for “humanely raised” versus “conventionally raised” chicken. We also use latent class analysis to distinguish between two classes of people—those who are willing to pay a premium for humanely raised chicken, and those who are not.

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR AND WELL-BEING SYMPOSIUM: Farm animal welfare assurance: Science and application1

Public and consumer pressure for assurances that farm animals are raised humanely has led to a range of private and public animal welfare standards, and for methods to assess compliance with these standards. The standards usually claim to be science based, but even though researchers have developed measures of animal welfare and have tested the effects of housing and management variables on welfare within controlled laboratory settings, there are challenges in extending this research to develop on-site animal welfare standards. The standards need to be validated against a definition of welfare that has broad support and which is amenable to scientific investigation. Ensuring that such standards acknowledge scientific uncertainty is also challenging, and balanced input from all scientific disciplines dealing with animal welfare is needed. Agencies providing animal welfare audit services need to integrate these scientific standards and legal requirements into successful programs that effectively measure and objectively report compliance. On-farm assessment of animal welfare requires a combination of animal-based measures to assess the actual state of welfare and resource-based measures to identify risk factors. We illustrate this by referring to a method of assessing welfare in broiler flocks. Compliance with animal welfare standards requires buy-in from all stakeholders, and this will be best achieved by a process of inclusion in the development of pragmatic assessment methods and the development of audit programs verifying the conditions and continuous improvement of farm animal welfare.

Animal welfare - recent developments in the field.

Abstract Animal welfare science has engaged in the studies of how mainly farm animals, but to a lesser extent also sport and pet animals and laboratory animals, are affected by various environmental factors. With philosophers engaging in animal welfare it became obvious that animal welfare cannot be properly improved without addressing ethical values. A new trend in animal welfare research is to focus on animal-based measures of welfare, making use of positive emotions as measures of good animal welfare and a multidisciplinary approach to the subject of animal welfare. In order to help risk managers to set appropriate priorities, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has taken on the task of developing a risk assessment methodology for animal welfare. In the last decade, the engagement in animal welfare has led to two international bodies working globally to bring on the subject of animal welfare as one of their areas of responsibility. It can be concluded that animal welfare research has developed from merely studies on changes in behaviour and physiological parameters to also include studies of affective states. Research has become more interdisciplinary and often social sciences are part of such research. Animal welfare has become a factor to consider for legislation and international trade.

Enrichment and individual differences affect welfare indicators in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus).

Enrichment aims to improve captive animals' welfare by enhancing their environments. Two of the struggles associated with measuring welfare are identifying when animals' needs are being met or surpassed and identifying how individual differences play a role in these outcomes. Using a group of related Guyanese squirrel monkeys, we studied changes in five welfare indicators under different environmental conditions. Manipulating food presentation, walkways, and toys, we created five enrichment levels ranging from just above USDA standards to considerably more complex than the animals' normal housing. At the end of each level, a novelty test was performed in which an unfamiliar woman entered the enclosure and offered food. Changes in behavior as a function of enrichment condition were analyzed using a repeated-measures MANOVA. Compared to baseline, less enrichment consistently increased negative welfare indicators (abnormal behavior, aggression, and negative responses to the novelty test), while more enrichment sometimes decreased these indicators. Positive welfare indicators were less consistently related to enrichment, but positive response to the novelty test did increase somewhat in the most enriched condition. Across conditions, rank correlations revealed that individuals had highly consistent individual differences in positive responses to novelty and somewhat consistent individual differences in rates of aggression. The goal of the enrichment and the species, sex, and individual animals to be enriched should be considered when selecting a welfare indicator, and facilities measuring animal welfare should study changes in the behavior of specific individuals to control for individual differences.

Heat-related mortality in dairy cattle: A case crossover study

The relationship between mortality and stressful weather is not only a complex health, social and environmental issue, but also becomes an economical problem when considering livestock. Future-climate scenarios suggest that higher global mean temperatures could result in marked changes in the frequency of extreme temperatures. The relationship between high temperature and mortality is well known in people living in urban areas, but it has been poorly investigated in livestock such as dairy cows. The aim of this study was to quantify the relationship between heat and mortality from all causes among dairy cows in Italy. We studied 6697 adult (≥24 months) dairy cows that died during the summer in the 5-year period 2002–2006 in three Italian districts (Brescia, Cuneo, Rome) which were selected because of the high livestock production and the availability of weather data for these geographical areas. A case-crossover design was applied using the temperature-humidity index (THI) as exposure of interest. Pooled odds ratio (OR) of mortality at high exposure values versus low exposure values was estimated. An exposure over the THI cut-off increased the risk of mortality by 1.6 times, with a 4% increase in mortality for each THI degree increase above the threshold. We found no effect modification for age-class, herd size or breed, but a certain degree of geographical heterogeneity was identified. The increased dairy cow mortality highlighted in this study should be considered when adopting animal welfare and farm management measures. This phenomenon can be prevented by adopting appropriate interventions to mitigate environmental thermal challenges.

How Welfare Is Measured and Why Scientists Do It Differently

Scientists studying the welfare of animals use approaches that best answer the research question. The research question, experimental approach, variables selected for measurement, and data interpretation can differ depending on the scientist's disciplinary training and his or her values framework. For example, a veterinary medical scientist may value measures of biological functioning over other measures of animal welfare, whereas an applied ethologist may place greater emphasis on behavioral measures. Animal care and husbandry recommendations, guidelines and standards, assessment strategies, and laws can reflect these differences with respect to the importance attached to the accommodation of different aspects of animal well-being.

Temporal Study of Stress-Induced Effects Caused by Developmental Temperature Changes and Water Quality in an Isolated Northern Pike (Esox lucius L.) Population

Development perturbations may affect the regular phenotype and are commonly measured through fluctuat-ing asymmetry (FA) levels. Short-term climatic variations, that modify the temperature, can influence chemical and physical water characteristics. Fishes have been used as model organisms for studying stress-induced changes in body symmetry, since they are ectothermic, good bioindicators, easy to find and having economic relevance. Northern pike being a holoarctic, big, edible, top predator is one of the most economically important freshwater fish for recreational and commercial fisheries and freshwater ecosystems management. The isolated population of Lake Trasimeno (Central Italy)—in good health conditions and that can be considered one of the genetically best conserved of Italy—, was chosen as model. FA, seven mi-crosatellite loci and early developmental stages were investigated in order to correlate the developmental stability of this population to its genetic variability and to environmental perturbations. The results obtained underlined a positive correlation (>>0.40) between FA indexes and temperature; the non-parametric Kruskall- Wallis test showed significant differences in FA levels for some FA indexes and parameters. Over-all results underlined that FA increased in individuals grown at a temperature above 8°C as compared with those grown at 5°C or at lower temperatures. Both positive and negative correlations between FA parameters and chemical and physical water characteristics were shown. The comparison of genetic and FA data under-lined a low correlation between microsatellite and FA pairwise distances, nevertheless a positive and signifi-cant correlation emerged for some FA measurements and microsatellite data. In particular, only Elu87 locus showed a statistical significant correlation versus total FA. Finally, as expected, results indicated that the in-cubation time was temperature-dependent; the ODT was in the range 8–10°C and lower and higher tempera-tures caused drastic embryo mortality. These results showed robust correlations, both positive and negative, between some FA parameters and chemical and physical characters and were in agreement with the assump-tion that temperature variations as well as pH, conductibility and chloride variation, may increase molecular perturbations and, subsequently, the global developmental noise during development. These data suggest that FA could be considered a measure of animal welfare. The relative breeding easiness of this species may be a valid tool for the estimation of controlled environmental stress influences, not only of thermal origin, and a valid information basis for studies on wild populations. Furthermore, it has long been debated whether FA levels depend upon genetic variability, the particular molecular marker notwithstanding, and whether it is possible to use one or more molecular markers to better understand FA data. The Mantel tests performed in this study showed very interesting correlations between FA and the investigated microsatellites. For the lack of a linkage map for the investigated microsatellite loci, it is presently impossible to establish the relation-ships between the FA parameter and the microsatellite loci that the Mantel test defines as correlated.

An analysis of animal-based versus resource-based comments in official animal welfare inspection reports from organic and conventional farms in Sweden

AbstractThis study analysed the free use of phrases related to animal-based and resource-based measures of animal welfare in Swedish state animal welfare inspection reports on conventional (C) and organic (O) farms. From 244 reports by 35 inspectors, 88 were analysed as matched pairs of C and O farms (same inspector, species and size of farm). They were analysed ‘blind’ for negative comments referring to the animals or to the resources (buildings and facilities). The most commonly reported deficiencies were poor body and hoof condition and dirty animals, accounting for a total of 79% of all animal-based remarks. Deficiencies in measures and equipment or excessively high stocking density together accounted for 78% of all resource-based remarks. The total number of general (non-compulsory) comments was similar for O and C farms. But the number of (compulsory) requirements for change to comply with legislation was almost twice as high for O than C. There were significantly more comments about body condition and hooves in C than O but a tendency for the opposite to be the case for animal health. Despite this, the number of requirements for change was greater for O-farms regarding their animals. There was no difference in number of comments on resources, but once more a tendency for more requirements for change was seen on O-farms. The study demonstrates that the analysis of inspection reports can be useful in terms of identifying where, in practice, animal welfare problems lie as well as further developing the methodology of animal welfare control.