Means-end Analysis Research Articles

Predicting ensuing actions in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders

This study investigated the ability to predict others' action in a group of children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) (n = 18). Their performance was compared with a group of children with mental retardation (n = 13) and a group of children with typical development (n = 19). Participants were presented with short incomplete videotaped movies showing an actor executing familiar and non-familiar actions. When asked to predict the outcome, participants with ASD produced fewer correct responses and their performance did not improve for familiar actions, as compared to both comparison groups. In addition, they committed a greater number of errors of temporal inversion. These results provide new evidence that an impaired means-end analysis process, leading to a diminished sensitivity to the sequence structure of goal-directed actions, would disrupt the ability to understand and predict others' actions. The comprehension of abnormalities in event knowledge provides a better insight of some of the problems that individuals with ASD encounter in spontaneously understanding real-life social situations.

Combining rational and biological factors in virtual agent decision making

To enhance believability of virtual agents, this paper presents an agent-based modelling approach for decision making, which integrates rational reasoning based on means-end analysis with personal psychological and biological aspects. The agent model developed is a combination of a BDI-model and a utility-based decision model in the context of specific desires and beliefs. The approach is illustrated by addressing the behaviour of violent criminals, thereby creating a model for virtual criminals. Within a number of simulation experiments, the model has been tested in the context of a street robbery scenario. In addition, a user study has been performed, which confirms the fact that the model enhances believability of virtual agents.

Quality of life aspirations: Exploring baby-boomer financial means-end goal structures

Motivated by industry concerns that baby-boomers are neglecting to plan for an eventual retirement, this study examines perceptions about the importance of financial means in contributing to their quality of life. Framed by means-end chain analysis and scholarship in consumer evaluations of life satisfaction, a number of theoretical expectations are empirically confirmed. Findings indicate that financial means are not high in the order of life domains that contribute to respondent quality of life. Retirement planning relies predominantly on compulsory superannuation contributions from employers, with the assumption that this would provide sufficient income to maintain their current lifestyle. Prior to retirement, respondents reported being more preoccupied with funding children's education costs and home mortgage payments. They also wished to avoid the embarrassment of approaching a financial planner until they had a reasonable sum that required more skilful investment advice. Finally, it was revealed that gender had an influence on the priority given to financial means and subsequent decisions to seek financial planning advice. These findings confirm the importance for financial planners to determine the core motivations and subordinate means through which baby-boomers envisage achieving quality of life on the journey into retirement.

Individual Motivations, The Group Process and Organisational Strategies in Suicide Terrorism

ABSTRACT The phenomenon of suicidal terrorism is analysed here on three levels. The individual level considers the motivations, developmental phases, and temperamental predispositions that may foster the readiness to embark on suicidal missions. The group level considers the social influence processes, the construction of shared realities and the ideological value systems these contain. Finally, the organisational level considers the strategic and tactical aspects of launching suicidal terrorism in terms of a means–end analysis. It is suggested that all three levels of analysis contribute insights into the phenomenon of suicidal terrorism and imply ways of addressing it.

An agent oriented modelling technique for risk analysis and control in software projects

In this paper, we present an approach project managers could use to model and control risks in software projects. The approach is helpful to project managers for performing means-end analysis, thereby uncovering the structural origin of risks in a project, and how the root-causes of such risks can be controlled from the early stages of the projects. We have illustrated this approach with a simple example typical of software development projects. Our work is restricted to providing a methodology that one can use in the existing risk management lifecycle models to analyse and uncover the structural origin of the risks, and control the risks from the early phases of a project.

On the hierarchical nature of means–end relationships in laddering data

Means–end analysis appeals to managers, and laddering is applicable for a large diversity of products and services. The cognitive model underlying conventional means–end analysis is hierarchical. Means serve certain ends, which, in turn, serve as means to higher-ordered ends. These ladders stretch from concrete attributes to abstract values. However, the question needs to be considered of whether or not means–end relations are really hierarchical. This article reviews the doubts with respect to this issue in the literature, and analyzes means–end datasets for two empirical studies. Here, the means–end relations turn out to be symmetrical rather than asymmetrical, that is, if respondents say that A is a means to B, they are also likely to say that B is a means to A. This contradicts the hierarchy assumption, and the conclusion is that means–end relations are not necessarily hierarchical. When means–end relations are symmetrical, rather than asymmetrical, a network representation is more adequate than a hierarchical value map (HVM). In that case the centrality of a concept in the network is the key to the prominence of a concept, rather than its level in the HVM. The implication of these findings is that in empirical applications, the hierarchy assumption underlying laddering needs testing. Failure of such tests to confirm the hierarchy assumption has consequences for the interpretation of the results and for the policy recommendations, based on the research.

Meaningful Involvement Opportunities in Ropes Course Programs

Ropes course research rarely investigates how program design and delivery contributes to program outcomes. This study used experience sampling and meansend analysis to 1) compare the meaningful involvement opportunities provided by two alternate ropes course design and delivery approaches, Challenge by Choice (CbC) and Inviting Optimum Participation (I-OPt), and 2) describe program design and delivery attributes effecting participant outcomes. The experience sampling data showed a significant main effect for the degree of meaningful involvement during high (belayed) ropes course activities. Follow-up ANOVAs indicated I-OPt programs participants experienced significantly more choice. Means-end analysis revealed I-OPt participants were more likely to mention low activities and group efficacy and less likely to mention anxiety while the reverse was true for CbC participants.

The desired teaching qualities of lecturers in higher education: a means end analysis

Purpose – The purpose of this research is to aim to develop a deeper understanding of the teaching qualities of effective lecturers that students desire and to uncover the constructs that underlie these desire expectations and reveal the underlying benefits for which students look.

A Methodology for Assessing Organizational Core Values*

abstract The goal of this study is to offer a methodology for empirically assessing the core values of an organization. It uses means–end analysis in order to determine those values that organization members manifest in their daily behaviour, and which are not just espoused ‘truisms’. The method is based on the sense members of an organization make of what they do. Sensemaking follows a means–end pattern, through which individual actions converge into central values. The values most central in this means–end structure are the core values that effectively motivate organization members in their job. Our method works in two steps: first, exploratory interviews using the laddering‐technique establish the values potentially most central to the organization; then, a follow‐up survey assesses the complete pattern of means–end relations among the potential values. Validity tests show that the most central values derived from this survey data are the most important to organization members. These values are also the most stable over time. We make a comparison of this method with traditional value surveys and we discuss its implications for the study of organizational behaviour.

MODELLING FOR CONTROL: UNDERSTANDING ROLE AND FUNCTION OF REGULATORY NETWORKS IN MICROORGANISMS

Microorganisms maintain a constant monitoring of extra-cellular physicochemical conditions in order to respond and modify their gene expression patterns accordingly. Modelling plays an essential role in developing an understanding of the regulatory networks in microorganisms. Means-end analysis, also called functional modelling, is proposed as a methodology to model regulatory networks. A modelling example for the E. coli lac operon illustrates that the methodology allows breaking down complex regulatory networks into elementary building blocks. The proposed modelling formalism enables a straightforward communication between systems engineers and biologists on the mechanisms underlying complex regulatory functions.

Means–end analysis: Does the affective state influence information processing style?

AbstractMeans–end theory aims at explaining how consumers evaluate products by linking relevant attributes to perceived consequences to desired ends in a hierarchical way, based on core assumptions of cognitive psychology about human information processing. This study investigates the influence of affective states on information processing styles in a means–end measurement situation, thus taking into account an important antecedent and correlate of human decision making and behavior that has received scarce attention so far in the methodological literature on means–end chains. The results reveal that a person's affective state indeed influences the style of information processing. Respondents in a positive mood used more general knowledge structures and processed the laddering questionnaire faster than respondents in a negative or neutral mood. The laddering technique, which measures means–end chains, thus seems to be sensitive to situational effects, and this finding indicates that affective states then also might have an influence on product knowledge and the decision‐making process in a purchase situation. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Homogenization and Cultural Differentiation of Customer Expectations in Global Segments: The Case of Business Executives

Global segments (e.g., business executives, MTV-nurtured teenagers) evolve from worldwide-shared activities that over time shape customer expectations. We argue that homogenization of expectations in global segments is not perfect. We identify forces that drive customer expectations towards homogeneity and others that hold them culturally bound. Expectations that are likely to become homogeneous are those that are instrumental to the worldwide activity that serves as a basis for formation of the global segment. Expectations that remain culturally bound and call for local adaptation relates to (1) cross-cultural variations in the centrality of the segmentation basis to one's general philosophy in life, and (2) product-related effect of the national culture from which the segment member is drawn. Hypotheses are tested by means-end analysis of expectations of international business executives from North America, East Asia, and South-Asia. Results, broadly consistent with predictions, are discussed in terms of the local-versus-global balance.

An Investigation of Cognitive Processes Engaged in by Recreational Computer Game Players

This exploratory study investigated the influence of two recreational computer games on children’s subsequent performance on computer-based instructional tasks. Children were assigned to three groups: two were invited to play their respective recreational computer games, and the third acted as a control group. All three groups then worked on a common set of educational tasks from environmental education software. The three groups’ performances on a set of educational tasks were compared using quantitative analysis for speed and correct solutions, and then qualitatively for the cognitive manoeuvres engaged in to accomplish the tasks. The findings suggest that playing recreational computer games may influence children’s performance on subsequent computer-based educational tasks. However, the extent of this influence depended on how closely the recreational computer game types matched the design of the tasks in the educational software. The cognitive manoeuvres used by game players also depended on the types of games played during the learning phase. Linear cause-and-effect games tended to encourage means–end analysis strategy, whereas adventure games encouraged inferential and proactive thinking. Though the findings of this study are encouraging, further studies need to be undertaken to replicate the results.

Crisis in the meat industry: a values-based approach to communications strategy

Meat consumption in the UK has been falling for almost 20 years and the long-standing link between affluence and meat eating has been broken. In 10 years the proportion of the population claiming to be vegan or vegetarian doubled, while those identified as meat avoiders almost quadrupled with a further 40% now being classified as 'meat reducers' by Gallup. Means-End analysis was used for studying the underlying motivations of three groups: meat eaters, meat reducers and vegetarians. Health was found to be the central issue in food choice, but each group sought different terminal values. The view that meat reducers (and possibly even meat avoiders) are demi-vegetarians is challenged by the finding that their underlying motivations are similar to meat consumers and quite unlike those of vegetarians. Persuading meat reducers to adopt a vegetarian diet would require the difficult task of changing the enduring terminal values that they seek to attain through food choice behaviour. In contrast, persuading them to eat more meat would 'only' be a question of changing their beliefs about the healthiness of meat consumption. This paper reports on a study conducted in the UK and considers the implications of the findings for communications strategy.

Hierarchical task network and operator-based planning: two complementary approaches to real-world planning

Work on generative planning systems has focused on two diverse approaches to plan construction. Hierarchical task network (HTN) planners build plans by successively refining high-level goals into lower-level activities. Operator-based planners employ means-end analysis to directly formulate plans consisting of low-level activities. While many have argued the universal dominance of a single approach, this paper presents an alternative view: that in different situations either may be most appropriate. To support this view, a number of advantages and disadvantages of these approaches are described in light of experiences in developing two real-world, fielded planning systems.

Practices in Design Concept Selection as Distributed Cognition

A study was conducted of the practices that engineering designers had learned from experience to apply during the search for, and implementation of, new solution concepts. Each of 36 practices was analysed in terms of the goal it was directed to, and how it distributed cognition beyond the mental world of the designer. The results suggest that designers distribute cognition over their environments in a wide variety of ways which are not restricted, for instance, to using design tools. They also suggest that designers learn these practices in the context of specific experiences, probably by trial and error or social observation rather than means–end analysis. All but two of the practices involved distributed cognition of some kind, but there were no cases where this distribution involved ceding executive control to the environment.

Inferring Conservation Laws in Particle Physics: A Case Study in the Problem of Induction

This paper develops a means–end analysis of an inductive problem that arises in particle physics: how to infer from observed reactions conservation principles that govern all reactions among elementary particles. I show that there is a reliable inference procedure that is guaranteed to arrive at an empirically adequate set of conservation principles as more and more evidence is obtained. An interesting feature of reliable procedures for finding conservation principles is that in certain precisely defined circumstances they must introduce hidden particles. Among the reliable inductive methods there is a unique procedure that minimizes convergence time as well as the number of times that the method revises its conservation principles. Thus the aims of reliable, fast and steady convergence to an empirically adequate theory single out a unique optimal inference for a given set of observed reactions—including prescriptions for when exactly to introduce hidden particles.

Memory and planning processes in solutions to well-structured problems.

Although many studies in the problem-solving literature have considered the factors that might determine the strategies that are employed to solve well-structured problems, these have typically focused upon variants of means-end analysis. In general, such models imply that strategies unfold in a temporally forward direction, that problem solvers typically restrict forward-planning activities to just one or two moves ahead of the current problem state, and that one important heuristic is the avoidance of previous moves. Although studies have demonstrated the importance of such anti-looping heuristics, few have systematically explored the possibility that problem solvers may also plan retrospectively in order to try and assess whether a move might take them back to a state that they have previously visited. Those models of problem solving that promote the role of an anti-looping heuristic have assumed that the ability to use such a heuristic is based upon memory for previous states, but other interpretations are possible. In this paper several studies are reported that attempt systematically to explore participants' attempts to recognize previously visited problem-solving states. The findings suggest that there is a systematic relationship between the success of this process, the time taken to make this judgement, and distance from the current state. It is also demonstrated that estimations about where future positions are likely to occur are symmetrical to estimations about past positions. It is suggested that this provides evidence that problem solvers engage in retrospective planning processes in order to try and avoid previous moves, and that this strategy may not be based straightforwardly upon their ability to remember previous problem states.

Means-End Chain Analyses of Fish Consumption in Denmark and France: A Multidimensional Perspective

SUMMARY This article aims to stress the potentiality of means-end chain analysis for studying cognitive structures on a cross-cultural basis. More precisely, the study attempts to compare and differentiate the means-end orientations motivating or demotivating consumers to buy seafood products in two different countries, France and Denmark. The results, although exploratory, lead to the identification of potential common and country-specific targets.

Max Weber's methodology: an ideal-type.

Weber dealt-in contrast to the textbook image of his method-with rational and nonempathetic explanatory interpretation. His ideal-type for social action emerged in a very formative period, as a mediation between history and theory and can be characterized as releasing what was inherent in a historicist tradition in crisis. Theoretical elements from Austrian marginalism provided Weber with the prototype for developing contrafactual schemes into ideal-types. Weber as a scholar at the crossroads resolved the problem of uncontrolled value-intrusion in a way that provided rational evidence and limited objectivity, in the form of instrumental means-end analysis. His methodology was coherent over time but gradually emerged when contemporary polemics called for his voice to be heard.