Meaning Of Target Word Research Articles

Хам сэдвээс үгийн утгыг таах

Some teachers of advanced learners of foreign language prefer to expose students to new words in context, hoping students will acquire the vocabulary through contextual clues; whereas others explicitly teach and drill vocabulary. Although the skill of guessing word meanings from context is widely acknowledged as a useful skill, there has been little research in this area and very little useful guidance for teachers or learners. This article focuses on learning of the meanings of new technical words that appear in a written context with explicit clues. The clues involve the following steps: determining the part of speech of the word, looking at the immediate grammar, studying the wider context, and guessing the word and checking the guess. Contextual inference or contextual guessing is defined as an important strategy in the absence of dictionaries or human assistance and it entails guessing the meaning of target word based on interpretation of its immediate context with or without reference to knowledge of the world.

Contextual effects on the figurative processing of nouns and verbs in people with Williams syndrome

BackgroundPeople with Williams syndrome (WS) are relatively proficient with lexical semantics; however, their contextual integration ability is impaired. Few studies have examined the cause of this deficiency. AimsThis study aimed to examine how people with WS process the integration of lexical words into contexts and determine whether this processing differs across syntactic categories. Methods and ProceduresCross-modal tasks with pictures and aurally presented sentences were employed. The semantic appropriateness of target word meanings represented by pictures with context were determined. Outcomes and ResultsPeople with WS responded to the figurative and literal nouns as appropriate interpretations significantly less often than the chronological age (CA)-matched controls; however, they responded to the literal verbs significantly more often than the mental age (MA)-matched controls. Furthermore, our findings suggest that people with WS displayed weaker contextual integration and asymmetric processing of nouns and verbs. Conclusions and ImplicationsPeople with WS were not at the same lexical semantic knowledge developmental level as the CA controls and differed from the MA controls. They used less contextual information when processing syntactic categories compared to the typically developing controls. These might lead to the impaired integration of words into contexts. These findings confirm the neuroconstructivism theory.

Natural language watermarking via paraphraser-based lexical substitution

Although powerful pretrained language models generate high-quality output text, they bring new concerns about the potential misuse of such models for malicious purposes. Natural language watermarking (NLW) is a technique that is desgined to help tracing the provenance of texts for againsting possible attacks, where the watermark signals are embedded into cover texts using synonym substitutions. The up-to-date BERT-based NLW methods have made remarkable progress on performance improvement of watermarking through generating substitutes for a masked target word. Yet, the BERT-based NLWs focus on the context of texts rather than the meaning of target words, which might make the capacity of watermark embeddings being lower.To address the limitations, this study proposes a novel NLW method by incorporating a paraphraser-based lexical substitution method. Under the promise of paraphrase preservation, the proposed NLW method utilizes the knowledge of paraphrase modeling to generate the substitute candidates to replace the words in original sentences capable of carrying the watermark signal in local contexts. We empirically show that our NLW method not only has a better meaning-preserved, but improves the payload more than 2 times compared with the BERT-based NLW method. Besides, compared with previous state-of-the-art method Compared with other state-of-the-art baselines, the experimental results show that the proposed LS method improves the Precision@1 score from 51.7% to 58.3% and from 50.5% to 62.6% on LS07 and CoInCo benchmarks, respectively.

Effects of Word Semantic Transparency, Context Length, and L1 Background on CSL Learners' Incidental Learning of Word Meanings in Passage-Level Reading.

This study investigated the effects of semantic transparency of Chinese disyllabic compound words on Chinese as a second language (CSL) learners' incidental learning of word meanings in sentence-level reading and passage-level reading. The accuracy of the learners' lexical inferencing was compared among various types of words (transparent, semi-transparent, and opaque words), different context lengths (sentence and passage contexts), and learners with different L1 backgrounds (with and without a Chinese character background in their L1s). In the study, ninety CSL adult learners were asked to infer the meanings of target words in the sentence context and the passage context. The results indicated that the effects of semantic transparency and context length on inferencing accuracy were significant, while the effect of L1 background was not. It was also found that there were significant interactions between transparency and context length as well as between transparency and L1 background.

어휘화 유형과 어휘 추론

Lexical inferencing, which is an effective vocabulary development strategy, has been investigated by many researchers in the field of reading to date; however, it has received far too little attention in listening. In this context, this paper explores the role of L1 lexicalization patterns in lexical inferencing in listening. To this end, a listening experiment was carried out with 15 short texts containing 15 target words to both native (N=8) and four groups of non-native (N=32) speakers of English. We included 15 Motion verb target words since Chinese, Korean, and Japanese are known to have different lexicalization patterns for Motion events. The results show that the two groups of Chinese-speaking participants achieved higher inferencing scores than the Korean- and Japanese-speaking participants because English and Chinese have similarities in lexicalization patterns of Motion events. In addition, Korean and Japanese listeners achieved significantly different inferencing scores, although these two languages are categorized into the same typological group. Hence, it is proposed that L1 lexicalization patterns play an essential role in guessing the meaning of target words in listening. We also present some results on the knowledge sources used in the lexical inferencing of the target words.

Incidental Vocabulary Learning Through Listening to Teacher Talk

AbstractThis study investigated incidental learning of single‐word items and collocations through listening to teacher talk. Although there are several studies that have investigated incidental vocabulary learning through listening, no intervention studies have explicitly investigated the extent to which listening to teachers in a classroom context might contribute to vocabulary learning. The present study fills this gap. Additionally, the study explored the relationship between vocabulary learning gains and two factors: frequency of occurrence and first language (L1) translation. A meaning‐recall test and a multiple‐choice test were used to evaluate learning gains. The results indicated that (a) listening to teacher talk has potential to contribute to vocabulary learning of both single‐word items and collocations, (b) using L1 translation to explain target word meanings contributed to larger gains on the immediate posttest, (c) frequency of occurrence was not a significant predictor of incidental vocabulary learning.

Context clue types and their prevalence in texts for Danish 3rd and 4th graders

Research suggests that readers learn about word meanings from the various contexts of words in texts. Therefore, context clue instruction is often recommended as a way of boosting students’ word learning skills. Ideally, such instruction should focus on context clue types that are common in authentic texts. We examined the prevalence of context clue types in authentic texts for Danish 3rd and 4th graders, focusing on contexts surrounding so-called Tier 2 words. A classification system with eight specific clue types was developed with inspiration from prior research, and the contexts of a sample of 150 words were analysed. We found that clues to target word meanings were present in the majority (63 pct.) of contexts. Among these helpful contexts, the most frequent clue types were Example and Cause and effect. We discuss how word type and text type may have influenced the results, and the implications for instruction are highlighted.

Secondary task type, exposure frequency, and their combined effects on second language vocabulary learning through reading

The type of processing-resource allocation (TOPRA) model predicts that the semantic processing of new second language (L2) words can impede the learning of their forms while structural processing can promote it. Using this framework, the present study examined the effects of processing type (semantic, structural, control), exposure frequency (one exposure, three exposures), and their combination on the learning of new L2 words through reading. Adult Japanese learners of English read a reading text that contained 10 target words, five of them were repeated only one time whereas the other five were repeated three times. They were asked to answer some comprehension questions as their primary task, and the participants in the semantic and structural processing groups were asked to perform the secondary vocabulary processing tasks (pleasantness rating and phonological recording, respectively) to further process target word meanings or forms. The unexpected first language (L1)-to-L2 and L2-to-L1 cued recall were administered. The positive effects of structural processing and exposure frequency were demonstrated in L1-to-L2 cued recall. The results further suggested that effects of vocabulary processing type and exposure frequency vary depending on how vocabulary gain is measured.

The effects of code-switched reading tasks on late-bilingual EFL learners' vocabulary recall, retention and retrieval

Tasks with a high involvement load would induce a higher success rate of retention and recall of target words for learners. A high task-based involvement load is defined by the need to focus on target words, the mental search for target word meanings by guessing from context, and to select and decide on the word meanings that are most appropriate in context. This study investigates the efficacy of codeswitched reading, a high involvement load task, in raising the lexical retention-retrieval performance of EFL learners, who were late Chinese-English bilinguals. An experimental group (n = 78) was learning vocabulary from reading codeswitched texts. A comparison group (n = 76) was reading graded readers without lexical glossing. An immediate retrieval test was conducted without prior notice followed by a delayed retrieval test a week later. Independent-samples t-test results show that the EFL learners in the experimental group significantly outperformed the comparison group in lexical retention-retrieval. The experimental group's recall scores were higher than those of the comparison group. The higher involvement load of codeswitched reading tasks and the visual salience of codeswitched target words accounted for the higher retention-retrieval scores of the experimental group than those of the comparison group.

The interpretation of dream meaning: Resolving ambiguity using Latent Semantic Analysis in a small corpus of text.

Computer-based dreams content analysis relies on word frequencies within predefined categories in order to identify different elements in text. As a complementary approach, we explored the capabilities and limitations of word-embedding techniques to identify word usage patterns among dream reports. These tools allow us to quantify words associations in text and to identify the meaning of target words. Word-embeddings have been extensively studied in large datasets, but only a few studies analyze semantic representations in small corpora. To fill this gap, we compared Skip-gram and Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) capabilities to extract semantic associations from dream reports. LSA showed better performance than Skip-gram in small size corpora in two tests. Furthermore, LSA captured relevant word associations in dream collection, even in cases with low-frequency words or small numbers of dreams. Word associations in dreams reports can thus be quantified by LSA, which opens new avenues for dream interpretation and decoding.

The Power of Graphic Organizers: Effects on Students’ Word-Learning and Achievement Emotions in Social Studies

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of three graphic organizers for teaching vocabulary and the development of the emotions-related to achievement. The study focused on the effects of different types of graphic organizers on word-learning and various emotions in social studies. This study was designed as a quasi-experimental design by utilizing a nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design. The experimental group was instructed on vocabulary by using the Concept definition map, a Word-questioning strategy and a Circle thinking map for word-learning, while the control group was taught to use the C(2)QU [(Context (2)- Questioning- Using)] as a process of learning new vocabulary from context. The participants of this study were fourth-grade students from a state school in Bayburt, Turkey. The results indicated that the graphic organizers group was more successful than the comparison group in terms of improving general word recognition knowledge and meaningful leaps in acquisition of target word meanings. In addition, it was found that using different types of graphic organizers developed positive achievement emotions (i.e., enjoyment, hope and pride) more than contextual learning process in social studies.

Effects of L1 and L2 glosses on incidental vocabulary acquisition and lexical representations

Despite much evidence for the positive effects of L1 and L2 glosses on incidental vocabulary acquisition, their relative effectiveness remains unsettled. Furthermore, how such glosses affect lexical representations remains unknown. To address these points, 180 native speakers of Korean (10th graders) were assigned to one of three groups to read an English story containing either L1 (Korean) or L2 (English) glosses, or the same story without glosses. Immediately and one week later, the three groups were instructed to recall the meanings of target words in their choice of L1 or L2. The target words consisted of two sets: a set of words occurring twice (F2 words) or four times (F4 words), respectively. The results showed that although the L1 and L2 groups did not differ in their short-term retention of the F2 and F4 words, the L1 group outperformed the L2 group in the long-term retention of F4 words, but not F2 words. Further, the L1 group recalled the meanings of novel word forms predominantly in the L1 (Korean), whereas the L2 group showed mixed results (approximately 75% in the L2 and 25% in the L1). These results suggest that lexical processing and storage mechanisms may vary significantly depending on the gloss type, resulting in both a quantitatively and qualitatively different impact on L2 lexical knowledge.

Promoting L2 Vocabulary Learning through Narrow Reading

Krashen (2004) has advocated that narrow reading, i.e., reading a series of texts addressing one specific topic, is an effective method to grow vocabulary. While narrow reading has been championed to have many advantages for L2 vocabulary learning, there remains a relative dearth of empirical studies that test the impact of narrow reading on L2 learners’ lexical growth. The present study examines whether narrow reading results in L2 vocabulary learning. A total of 61 high intermediate learners read a series of texts either thematically related (narrow) or unrelated (wide) over one month. The findings showed that narrow reading considerably facilitated learners’ understanding of meanings of target words and their ability to appropriately use them. The narrow group’s responses to an exit questionnaire revealed several factors that could have accounted for this improvement in their vocabulary knowledge. Several implications for vocabulary teaching are discussed.

Four Practical Principles for Enhancing Vocabulary Instruction

This article presents four practical principles that lead to enhanced word-meaning instruction in the elementary grades. The authors, a collaborative team of researchers and classroom teachers, identified and developed these principles and related instructional activities during a three-year vocabulary instruction research project. The principles include establishing efficient, rich routines for introducing target word meanings; providing review activities that promote deep processing of word meanings; responding directly to student confusion; and fostering universal participation in and accountability for vocabulary instruction. The authors draw on instructional materials, classroom images, and observational data from their research to describe and illustrate each of these strategies.

Lexical inferencing strategies: The case of successful versus less successful inferencers

Abstract How L2 learners infer word meanings from context and what strategies they use to do so have recently become the subject of much research. However, there are still many questions about how readers infer word meanings from context and in particular what distinguishes successful from unsuccessful inferencers. Using think-aloud procedures with 11 Chinese ESL learners, this mixed-design study explored L2 learners' inferential strategies and the relationship with their success. Twelve types of inferential strategies were found to be used by all the learners, and two groups of learners were identified: successful and less successful inferencers. The results of both quantitative and qualitative analyses confirmed a number of differences between successful and less successful inferencers, which pertained to not only the degree to which they used certain strategies but also when and how to use them successfully. Several important characteristics of successful inferencers included frequent use of evaluation and monitoring strategies, a combination of both textual and background knowledge, self-awareness, and repeated efforts to infer the target word meanings. Implications of the findings for making successful inferences are discussed.

Using the keyword method in the classroom: Is the interacting imagery necessary?

Abstract The Keyword Method (KWM) is one of the most extensively researched methods used in foreign language vocabulary learning. However, evidence for its successful classroom application is limited and research results are mixed. This paper reports two experiments using a simple teacher-friendly procedure in which assessment of the KWM on Romanian speaking subjects was used for the first time. Results indicate that showing simultaneously a picture for a new L2 vocabulary word and one for the keyword increases retention, even when pictures show no interaction of keyword and target word meanings when applied in elementary (studies 1 and 2) and middle school classrooms (study 2). The outcome of this research may benefit teachers and support immediate and long-term efficiency of the KWM.

Infer the Meaning of Unknown Words by Sheer Guess or by Clues? – An Exploration on the Clue Use in Chinese EFL Learner’s Lexical Inferencing

Lexical inferencing is refered to as guessing the meaning of an unknown word using available linguistic and other clues. It is a primary lexical processing strategy to tackle unknown words while reading. This study aims to explore the clue use of Chinese EFL learners in inferring the meaning of unknown word in reading. Two types of introspective research methods have been used to achieve the research aim. 55 participants of four levels (tertiary final, tertiary middle, tertiary initial and senior secondary) were asked to read a sample text and infer the meaning of target words through thinking aloud. Additional information of their lexical inferencing was elicited through stimulated recalls. The results show that Chinese EFL learners use a variety of clues in their lexical inferencing. The findings also reveal some discrepancies of clue use across different levels learners in lexical inferencing.

A Word Sense Disambiguation Approach for English-Thai Translation

This paper proposes a novel approach for word sense disambiguation (WSD) in English to Thai. The approach generated a knowledge base which stored information of local context and then applied this information to analyze probabilities of several meanings of a target word. The meanings with the maximum probability are translated as Thai meaning of that English target word. The approach has been evaluated by analyzing the percentage of accuracy of the target word translation in each paper. It also compared the accuracy with Google translation. The experimental results indicate that the proposed approach is more accuracy than Google Translation by using paired T-test statistic equals to 6.628 with sig. = 0.00 (< 0.05)

Evaluating Word in Phrase: The Modulation Effect of Emotional Context on Word Comprehension

The present study aims to explore the influence of emotional context on word evaluation. Participants were asked to read an "adjective +noun" phrase, where the adjective could be a positive or negative word, and the noun could be a positive, neutral or negative word, and then to make an emotional evaluation on the emotional tone of the target noun based on a 9-point Likert scale. In a control condition, an isolated noun was presented with no context. Results showed that positive context made the evaluation of target words bias toward positive tone, while negative context shaped the evaluation of target words toward negative tone. The modulatory effect of negative context was greater than that of positive context in shaping evaluation of emotional words with opposite valence. Moreover, the modulatory effect of emotional context was constrained by the inherent meaning of target word. The present study demonstrated the flexibility as well as the relative stability of emotional meaning of word.

Direct Vocabulary Instruction in Kindergarten: Teaching for Breadth versus Depth

Abstract The purpose of this study was to compare 2 methods for directly teaching word meanings to kindergarten students within storybook read‐alouds that varied in instructional time and depth of instruction along with a control condition that provided students with incidental exposure to target words. Embedded instruction introduces target word meanings during storybook readings in a time‐efficient manner. Extended instruction is more time intensive but provides multiple opportunities to interact with target words outside the context of the story. Participants included 42 kindergarten students who were taught 9 target words, 3 with each method. Target words were counterbalanced in a within‐subjects design. Findings indicated that extended instruction resulted in more full and refined word knowledge, while embedded instruction resulted in partial knowledge of target vocabulary. Implications are discussed in relation to the strengths and limitations of different approaches to direct vocabulary instruction...