Meal Energy Intake Research Articles

Passive overconsumption? Limited evidence of compensation in meal size when consuming foods high in energy density: Two randomised crossover experiments

Research has drawn contradictory conclusions as to whether humans adjust meal size based on meal energy density (ED) or exhibit ‘passive overconsumption’. Recent observational research has suggested that meal EDs greater than 1.7–2 kcal/g are compensated for through consumption of smaller meal sizes. We tested the relationship between ED and meal size by examining energy intake of meals at three levels of ED: low (∼1.0 kcal/g), medium (1.7–2.0 kcal/g) and high (>3.0 kcal/g). Two randomised, crossover experiments were conducted with adult participants. In experiment 1 (n = 34, 62% female, mean age 37.4 years), participants were served a lunch including a familiar low, medium or high ED dessert to eat ad libitum. In experiment 2 (n = 32, 66% female, mean age 36.4 years), participants were served a lunch meal manipulated to be low, medium or high ED to eat ad libitum. For experiment 2, later energy intake (post-meal energy intake) was also measured. In experiment 1, participants consumed a similar amount of energy from the low vs. medium ED food. The high ED food was associated with an increased intake of approximately 240 kcals compared to medium (p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 2.31) and low (p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 4.42) ED foods. In experiment 2, there were no significant differences in meal size (grams) between ED meals, resulting in a largely linear relationship between meal ED and energy intake across the three ED conditions (‘passive overconsumption’). There were no differences in later energy intake between ED conditions. Contrary to recent suggestions, foods higher in ED were not associated with adjustments to meal size and were associated with increased energy intake across two experiments. Reformulation of foods high in ED may be an effective population level approach to reducing energy intake and obesity.Clinical trial registry number: NCT05744050; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05744050.

Impact of dishware size on energy intake in adult females: A randomized control trial examining effects on within-meal and post-meal energy intake

The influence dishware size has on meal energy intake is unclear and no study to date has examined the impact on total daily energy intake. In a pre-registered RCT we investigate the impact of breakfast dishware size on breakfast and post-breakfast energy intake, as well as daily energy intake and hunger/fullness. In a repeated-measures design, 50 females (aged 18–77 years) were randomised to receive smaller or larger breakfast dishware on two separate days. Energy intake was also measured during the rest of the day. The primary outcomes were breakfast and post-breakfast energy intake (kcal). Secondary outcomes were total daily energy intake (kcal), and hunger/fullness (rated from 0 to 100). We examined if results differed by socioeconomic position (SEP). Dishware did not affect energy intake at breakfast (smaller: M = 394.8 kcal; SD = 172.2 larger: M = 394.4 kcal; SD = 164.4; d = 0.003, p = 0.98), and there was no statistically significant evidence that dishware size affected energy intake after breakfast, though post-breakfast energy intake was somewhat higher after using larger breakfast dishware (smaller: M = 1974.6 kcal; SD = 475.2; larger: M = 2077.5 kcal; SD = 525.9; d = −0.27, p = 0.06). Total daily energy intake, hunger and fullness ratings did not significantly differ between dishware conditions. There was no evidence that SEP moderated the effect of dishware size on energy intake. Smaller vs. larger breakfast dishware size had no significant effect on breakfast or post-breakfast energy intake, hunger, fullness, or daily energy intake. Previous studies may have overestimated the promise of dishware size as an intervention for reducing energy intake. Alternative interventions targeting the food environment should now be prioritised.

The influence of ultra-processed food consumption on reward processing and energy intake: Background, design, and methods of a controlled feeding trial in adolescents and young adults

BackgroundThe greatest age-related weight gain occurs in the early/mid-20s. Overall dietary quality among adolescents and emerging adults (age 18–25) is poor, with ultra-processed foods (UPF) representing more than two-thirds of adolescents' total energy intake (i.e., 68%). UPF consumption may impact cognitive and neurobiological factors that influence dietary decision-making and energy intake (EI). To date, no research has addressed this in this population. MethodsParticipants aged 18–25 will undergo two 14-day controlled feeding periods (81% UPF, 0% UPF) using a randomly assigned crossover design, with a 4-week washout between conditions. Brain response to a UPF-rich milkshake, as well as behavioral measures of executive function, will be evaluated before and after each diet. Following each diet, measurements include ad libitum buffet meal EI, food selection, eating rate, and eating in the absence of hunger (EAH). Prior to initiating recruitment, controlled diet menus, buffet, and EAH snacks were developed and evaluated for palatability. Sensory and texture attributes of buffet and EAH snack foods were also evaluated. ResultsOverall diet palatability was rated “like very much” (8)/”like moderately”(7) (UPF: 7.6 ± 1.0; Non-UPF: 6.8 ± 1.5). Subjective hardness rating (range = 1–9 [1 = soft, 9 = hard] was similar between UPF and Non-UPF buffet and snack items (UPF:4.22 ± 2.19, Non-UPF: 4.70 ± 2.03), as was the objective measure of hardness (UPF: 2874.33 ± 2497.06 g, Non-UPF: 2243.32 ± 1700.51 g). ConclusionsFindings could contribute to an emerging neurobiological understanding of the effects of UPF consumption including energy overconsumption and weight gain among individuals at a critical developmental stage.

Children’s Energy Intake Generally Increases in Response to the Energy Density of Meals but Varies with the Amounts and Types of Foods Served

BackgroundFood energy density (ED; kcal/g) is positively related to energy intake in numerous studies. A recent secondary analysis proposed that when the ED of consumed food is above a breakpoint, adults sense calories and adjust meal size to minimize overconsumption. ObjectivesWe conducted a secondary analysis of measured intakes in preschool children to assess how meal energy intake was related to meal ED as well as to meal portions, eating occasions, and menus. MethodsWe analyzed weighed intakes from 6355 meals served to 94 children aged 3 to 5 y in 2 randomized crossover trials. We provided children with all their daily food and milk for multiple periods of 5 consecutive days in their usual childcare setting. We used linear mixed models with repeated measures to analyze the effects on energy intake of meal ED and meal weight, either as served or as consumed. ResultsEnergy intake at meals was related to the ED and portions of served food and also to the ED and weight of consumed food (all P < 0.0001). Energy intake was also significantly affected by the eating occasion and the foods served on the menus. Children selectively ate higher-ED items, which were served in smaller amounts than lower-ED options. Meal energy intake was curvilinear across consumed ED; it initially increased (slope: 113 ± 2 kcal/ED unit) but decreased at higher-ED meals (deceleration: −11 ± 1 kcal/ED unit2) without evidence of a clear breakpoint. This trajectory may be attributable to the relatively limited portions of higher-ED foods that were served. ConclusionsChildren’s energy intake generally increased with greater ED; at higher-ED meals, however, energy intake decreased in a curvilinear manner without a clear breakpoint. This reduction in intake at higher ED could be explained by meal-related factors such as the portions served rather than by sensitivity to meal energy content.This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03010501 and NCT03242863.

A pecan-enriched diet reduced postprandial appetite intensity and enhanced peptide YY secretion: A randomized control trial

Tree nuts have been shown to have satiating qualities; however, little is known concerning the effect of pecans on measures of appetite. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of a pecan-enriched diet on subjective, physiological, and direct measures of appetite in older adults. This was a randomized, controlled trial in which healthy older adults (50-75y) were randomized to either consume 68g of pecans/day (pecan; n=21) or avoid all nuts (control; n=23) for 4 weeks. At pre- (V1) and post-diet (V2) visits body weight (BW) and body fat percentage (BF) were assessed and actual change in these outcomes for pecan were compared to theoretical changes if pecans were consumed without compensation. Subjective appetite was measured using visual analog scale (VAS), and blood was collected to assess changes in physiological appetite before and every 30min for 4h following a high-fat meal. Energy intake (EI) at a buffet meal was then assessed in the laboratory ("in-lab"). VAS assessments continued hourly for the next 7h and EI ("at-home") was self-reported. BW and BF did not change for pecan or control across the intervention and theoretical change in BW (theoretical: 2.2±0.1 vs. actual: 0.4±0.2kg; p<0.0001) and BF (theoretical: 0.4±0.04 vs. actual: 0.2±0.2%; p<0.0001) was significantly greater than actual change for pecan. From V1 to V2, there was an increase in fasting (pecan: 77.0±4.6 to 93.5±6.1 vs control: 76.0±5.0 to 72.5±5.0pg/mL; p=0.01) and postprandial peptide YY for pecan vs. control (p=0.04); however, fasting and postprandial cholecystokinin and ghrelin did not differ (p>0.05). There were no differences in the change in subjective appetite ratings at fasting, following the high-fat meal (in-lab), at-home, or across the full day between groups (p>0.05 for all). However, there was a significant suppression of peak desire to eat ratings for pecan vs. control (pecan: 67.9±4.6 to 57.1±5.2 vs. control: 61.9±4.2 to 60.6±4.3mm; p=0.04). Combined, buffet meal, and at-home EI did not differ significantly within pecan and control; however, there was a trend (p=0.11) for a between group difference in buffet meal EI driven by increased EI for control (+137±86kcal) vs. decreased EI for pecan (-45±77kcal). A 4-week pecan-enriched diet led to enhanced satietogenic metrics compared to a diet void of all nuts. As weight remained stable during the intervention, adding pecans to the daily diet may be beneficial to appetite control and weight maintenance in a healthy older population. ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT04385537.

Dimensions of sleep quality are related to objectively measured eating behaviors among children at high familial risk for obesity.

The aim of this study was to evaluate whether dimensions of sleep quality were associated with homeostatic and hedonic eating behaviors among children with healthy weight (BMI-for-age < 90%) but varying maternal weight status. A total of 77 children (mean [SD], age: 7.4 [0.6] years; BMI z score: -0.10 [0.7]) with healthy weight and high (n= 32) or low (n= 45) familial obesity risk based on maternal weight status were served an ad libitum meal (homeostatic eating) followed by palatable snacks to assess eating in the absence of hunger (EAH; hedonic eating). Habitual sleep quality was quantified from seven nights of wrist actigraphy. Partial correlations, adjusted for child energy needs, pre-meal hunger, food liking, and socioeconomic status, evaluated associations of sleep with meal intake and EAH. Additionally, sleep-by-obesity risk interactions were assessed. Greater sleep fragmentation was associated with higher homeostatic meal energy intake, but only among children at high familial obesity risk (p value for interaction=0.001; β high risk=48.6, p= 0.001). Sleep fragmentation was not associated with total EAH but was related to higher and lower intake of carbohydrates (r= 0.33, p= 0.003) and fat (r= -0.33, p= 0.003), respectively. Adverse associations of poor sleep with energy intake may be amplified among children already predisposed to obesity. Furthermore, that fragmented sleep relates to preferential intake of carbohydrates over fat during EAH may suggest alterations in taste preferences with poor sleep.

Ad libitum meal energy intake is positively influenced by energy density, eating rate and hyper-palatable food across four dietary patterns.

Diets for the prevention and treatment of obesity are often informed by theories about food characteristics believed to support spontaneous reductions in ad libitum energy intake without inducing hunger. Here we estimated how energy density, hyper-palatability, protein content and eating rate affected ad libitum energy intake of 2,733 meals from four dietary patterns. Energy density, eating rate and hyper-palatable foods were consistently positively related to meal energy intake across all diets. Protein content was positively related to meal energy intake during ultraprocessed and unprocessed diets but was not significantly related to energy intake of minimally processed low-fat or low-carbohydrate meals.

Effects of pre-meal whey protein consumption on acute food intake and energy balance over a 48-hour period

• Whey protein (20 g) reduced energy intake in both HW (193.4 kcal, 15.9 %) and OV/OB (215.81 kcal, 17.8 %) when consumed 20 min prior to mealtime, compared to placebo. • Energy deficits induced in an ad libitum test meal did not upregulate compensatory behaviours over the following 48 h. • A slowed eating rate may influence food intake following premeal whey ingestion. The effects of pre-meal whey protein consumption on acute food intake and subsequent energy balance measured over 48-h was investigated in males of healthy-weight (HW) or living with overweight and obesity (OV/OB). On two separate trial days, following a controlled breakfast (09:00) and lunch (13:00), 12 HW and 12 OV/OB males consumed either whey protein (20 g) or flavoured water beverages (16:40), and ad libitum test meal (17:00). A controlled 48-h assessment of energy intake and expenditure was used to determine any compensatory behaviour. Test meal energy intake reduced 15.9 % in HW (P = 0.003), and 17.8 % in OV/OB (P = 0.005) following whey protein, compared to placebo. We report no between-group differences and no changes in compensatory behaviour. A small dose of whey protein reduces energy intake at the next meal, without upregulating compensatory behaviours in both HW and OV/OB males. However, chronic effects on body composition and weight loss remain to be elucidated.

Towards a new food labelling system for sustainable food production and healthy responsible consumption: The Med Index Checklist

By 2024, the European Commission will examine a new sustainable labeling framework. Here we describe the development of a new food product labeling system, named Mediterranean Index (Med Index), aimed at promoting adherence to the Mediterranean diet (healthy and sustainable nutritional pattern) by stimulating citizens to practice physical activity consistent with the energy intake of meals and encouraging producers to make healthier and more sustainable food products. It is characterized by the possibility of integrating 27 criteria addressing the issue of sustainable food production processes in the frame of three pillars: nutritional, environmental, and social sustainability. It is conceived as a holistic front-of-pack (FOP) label, complete and applicable by food producers as it is based on measurable criteria, widely shared by stakeholders, but usually adopted on an individual basis.

Socioeconomic position and the impact of increasing the availability of lower energy foods for home delivery: a randomized control trial examining effects on meal energy intake and later energy intake

Socioeconomic position and the impact of increasing the availability of lower energy foods for home delivery: a randomized control trial examining effects on meal energy intake and later energy intake

The impact of increasing the availability of lower energy foods for home delivery and socio-economic position: a randomised control trial examining effects on meal energy intake and later energy intake.

Increasing the availability of lower energy food options is a promising public health approach. However, it is unclear the extent to which availability interventions may result in consumers later 'compensating' for reductions in energy intake caused by selecting lower energy food options and to what extent these effects may differ based on socio-economic position (SEP). Our objective was to examine the impact of increasing availability of lower energy meal options on immediate meal energy intake and subsequent energy intake in participants of higher v. lower SEP. In a within-subjects design, seventy-seven UK adults ordered meals from a supermarket ready meal menu with standard (30 %) and increased (70 %) availability of lower energy options. The meals were delivered to be consumed at home, with meal intake measured using the Digital Photography of Foods Method. Post-meal compensation was measured using food diaries to determine self-reported energy intake after the meal and the next day. Participants consumed significantly less energy (196 kcal (820 kJ), 95 % CI 138, 252) from the menu with increased availability of lower energy options v. the standard availability menu (P < 0·001). There was no statistically significant evidence that this reduction in energy intake was substantially compensated for (33 % compensated, P = 0·57). The effects of increasing availability of lower energy food items were similar in participants from lower and higher SEP. Increasing the availability of lower energy food options is likely to be an effective and equitable approach to reducing energy intake which may contribute to improving diet and population health.

Snacking among shiftwork nurses related to non-optimal dietary intake.

To compare nurses' non-optimal eating behaviours across different shifts, to examine whether non-day shifts were related to deviation from optimal dietary behaviours compared with day shifts and whether such deviation was related to non-optimal macronutrient intake. This is a 4-day intensive longitudinal study. A convenience sample of hospital nurses was recruited in Taiwan. From September 2018 through January 2019, 120 participants completed 4-days of 24-h dietary recalls. One-way ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis H test were used to compare differences in energy and macronutrient intake and frequency of meals and snacking, respectively. Generalized linear regressions examined (1) the associations between shiftwork schedules and non-optimal eating behaviours and (2) associations between non-optimal eating and high energy contribution of non-optimal macronutrients. Nurses consumed less energy on evening and night shifts compared with day shifts. However, energy intake from snacking was higher on evening and night shifts relative to day shifts. Nurses consumed less meals but had higher snacking frequency on non-day shifts. In addition, high energy intake from snacking was positively associated with high energy intake from saturated fat. Nurses were more likely to have non-optimal eating behaviours on non-day shifts, which may contribute to an increased intake of saturated fat; thus, increasing their risk of chronic diseases. Strategies to improve non-day shift nurses' non-optimal eating behaviours may be beneficial to their health. Shiftwork is known to affect nurses' eating behaviours; however, which shift is associated with unhealthy eating remains inconclusive. Despite lower energy intakes, nurses had higher intake by snacking on evening and night shifts. High snacking intake was associated with a high intake of saturated fat. Hospitals can increase the availability of healthy foods on evening or night shifts, which may improve non-day shift nurses' non-optimal eating behaviours.

Nutrient composition of mealtimes and its association with the energy intake of subsequent meals among Mexican adults

The composition of the diet influences energy intake by affecting satiety. Macronutrients have a hierarchical effect on satiety, where proteins have the greatest influence, followed by carbohydrates and fats. Alcohol consumption has also shown an effect on increasing energy intake in subsequent meals. Most of this evidence comes from studies under controlled conditions but, it is not clear if effects of diet composition are maintained or counteracted by other determinants of EI in real life. In this paper, we described the diet composition by mealtime in a sample of free-living Mexican adults, as well as evaluated its association with the energy intake in subsequent meals between- and within-subjects. We used information from a national cross-sectional survey of the urban Mexican population. Dietary information was collected by an automated multiple-pass 24-h recall and all participants had information from three non-consecutive days (two weekdays and one weekend). We analyzed information from adults from 20 years and older and used mixed-effects hybrid models that isolate the intra-subject, from the between-subject associations using a substitution approach. We found that alcohol and added sugars were associated with an increased EI between- and within-subjects, while fiber was associated with a decreased EI in subsequent meals within-subjects. Between-subjects, the higher intake of proteins was associated with a decrease in EI, whereas carbohydrates were associated with an increased EI in subsequent meals. We concluded that the composition of the diet at one mealtime predicted EI in subsequent meals of free-living subjects. Understanding the effects of diet composition could guide strategies to reduce EI and obesity prevention.

Nutritional Inadequacies Among Post-bariatric Patients During COVID-19 Quarantine in Sao Paulo, Brazil.

Post bariatric control of food intake is influenced by psychological and behavioral factors. We investigated dietary habits and food intake during COVID-19 quarantine among recently operated patients. Patients were assessed for total and per meal energy and macronutrient intake as well as frequency of food consumption per processing level. Patients were also classified according to adherence to nutritional recommendations from our outpatient clinic. Main results are indicative of inappropriate nutritional intake during COVID-19 quarantine in postoperative bariatric patients. We observed that many patients failed to meet the recommended protein intake (89.2%) along a relatively high intake of ultra-processed foods (~1/4 of the diet). Our data suggest the need for the implementation of strategies to extend nutritional care to at-risk patients during social distancing.

Individual differences and moderating participant characteristics in the effect of reducing portion size on meal energy intake: Pooled analysis of three randomized controlled trials

Portion size impacts on the amount of energy consumed during a meal. However, research findings on participant characteristics that moderate the effect of portion size on energy intake are mixed. Using data pooled across three randomized control trials, we examined the impact of reducing meal portion size on meal energy intake in 111 adult participants varying in sex (55 M, 56 F), body weight (BMI range = 19–42) and a broad range of participant characteristics, including usual portion size, restrained, emotional and external eating, satiety responsiveness, plate clearing tendencies, concerns about wasting food and self-control. In each trial, a repeated-measures design was used and participants consumed three ad-libitum lunchtime meals differing in portion size; large-normal portion size condition (100%) vs. small-normal portion size condition (~ 75%) vs. smaller than normal portion size condition (~ 50%). In mixed ANOVAs, we did not find convincing evidence that any participant characteristic reliably moderated the impact that reducing portion size had on energy intake. For the majority of participants energy intake decreased when portion size was reduced and it was more common for participants to consistently reduce their energy intake than consume a similar amount when portion size was reduced. We also found little evidence that a sub-group of participants existed whose energy intake was consistently resistant to portion size reductions. Portion size may be a universal driver of energy intake, as reducing meal portion size appears to decrease meal energy intake among most people. Food portion downsizing may therefore be an equitable intervention approach to reducing population level energy intake.

Body Fatness Influences Associations of Body Composition and Energy Expenditure with Energy Intake in Healthy Women.

This study aimed to investigate the influence of body fatness on the associations of body composition and energy expenditure (EE) with energy intake (EI). Data from 93 women (BMI = 25.5 [SD 4.2] kg/m2 ) recruited for two studies (Study 1, n = 48, BMI = 25.0-34.9 kg/m2 ; Study 2, n = 45, BMI = 18.5-24.9 kg/m2 ) were examined. Body composition, resting metabolic rate (RMR), and test meal EI were assessed during a laboratory probe day. Physical activity, total daily EE (TDEE), and self-reported free-living 24-hour EI were collected during 7 days. In the whole sample, fat-free mass (r = 0.45; P < 0.001), RMR (r = 0.41; P < 0.001), and TDEE (r = 0.39; P < 0.001), but not fat mass (r = 0.17; P = 0.11), were positively associated with free-living 24-hour EI. Body fat percentage moderated the associations of RMR (β = -1.88; P = 0.02) and TDEE (β = -1.91; P = 0.03) with mean free-living 24-hour EI. Fat mass was negatively associated with test meal EI only in the leaner group (r = -0.43; P = 0.004), and a weak nonlinear association was observed in the whole sample (r2 = 0.092; P = 0.04). Body fat percentage appears to moderate the associations between EE and daily EI. Furthermore, the negative association between fat mass and test meal EI observed in leaner individuals was absent in those with higher body fatness. Therefore, higher levels of body fatness may weaken the coupling between EE and EI.

Promoting Vegetable Intake in Preschool Children: Does Enhancing the Taste of Vegetables Influence the Portion Size Effect?

Abstract Objectives To meet dietary guidelines, effective strategies are needed to encourage children to eat a greater proportion of their diet from vegetables. We tested whether serving a larger portion, enhancing the taste with small amounts of butter and salt, or combining these strategies would increase vegetable intake at a meal for preschool children. Methods Using a crossover design in childcare centers, we served lunch once a week for four weeks to 67 children aged 3–5 y (61% girls; 16% with overweight or obesity). The meal consisted of two familiar vegetables (broccoli and corn) along with fish sticks, rice, ketchup, applesauce, and milk. Across the four meals, we varied the portion of vegetables (60 or 120 g total weight) and served them either plain or enhanced (0.5% salt and 6.6% light butter by weight). The other items in the meal were not varied. All meals were consumed ad libitum and weighed to determine intake. At the end of the study, children rated their liking for the foods and parents completed questionnaires about their child's eating behavior. Results Doubling the portions of vegetables led to greater consumption of both broccoli and corn (P &amp;lt; 0.0001) and increased total vegetable intake by 68% (mean ± SEM 21 ± 3 g). Enhancing vegetables with butter and salt, however, did not influence their intake (P = 0.13) nor modify the effect of larger portions on their intake (P = 0.10). Serving more vegetables did not affect intake of the other meal components (P = 0.57), thus meal energy intake increased by 13 ± 5 kcal (5%; P = 0.02). Ratings indicated that children had similar liking for the plain and enhanced versions of both broccoli (P = 0.31) and corn (P = 0.97). Although 73% of children rated one or both plain vegetables as yummy or just okay, they ranked their preference for the other foods in the meal higher than for the vegetables (P &amp;lt; 0.0001). Children differed in their response to larger portions of vegetables: those with higher scores for food fussiness and parental pressure to eat had smaller increases in vegetable intake when portions were doubled (both P &amp;lt; 0.03). Conclusions Serving larger portions of vegetables at a meal was an effective strategy to promote vegetable intake in children. When familiar, well-liked vegetables were served, adding butter and salt was not necessary to increase vegetable consumption. Funding Sources National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.

Quantifying Diet Intake and Its Association with Cardiometabolic Risk in the UK Airwave Health Monitoring Study: A Data-Driven Approach.

We used data-driven approaches to identify independent diet exposures among 45 candidate variables, for which we then probed cross-sectional associations with cardiometabolic risk (CMR). We derived average daily caloric intake and macronutrient composition, daily meal frequencies, and irregularity of energy and macronutrient intake from 7-day food diaries in the Airwave Health Monitoring Study participants (N = 8090). We used K-means and hierarchical clustering to identify non-redundant diet exposures with representative exposures for each cluster chosen by silhouette value. We then used multi-variable adjusted logistic regression to estimate prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) for CMR (≥3 criteria: dyslipidemia, hypertension, central adiposity, inflammation and impaired glucose control) across diet exposure quartiles. We identified four clusters: i) fat intake, ii) carbohydrate intake, iii) protein intake and intake regularity, and iv) meal frequencies and energy intake. Of these clusters, higher carbohydrate intake was associated with lower likelihood of CMR (PR = 0.89, 95%CI = 0.81–0.98; ptrend = 0.02), as was higher fiber intake (PR = 0.76, 95%CI = 0.68–0.85; ptrend < 0.001). Higher meal frequency was also associated with lower likelihood of CMR (PR = 0.76, 95%CI = 0.68–0.85; ptrend < 0.001). Our results highlight a novel, data-driven approach to select non-redundant, minimally collinear, primary exposures across a host of potentially relevant exposures (including diet composition, temporal distribution, and regularity), as often encountered in nutritional epidemiology.

Does protein supplementation impact appetite and energy intake in older adults? A systematic review

AbstractProtein supplementation represents an attractive strategy to prevent skeletal muscle mass loss and function with aging. However, it could be counterproductive in older adults, due to adverse effects on appetite and energy intake (EI). Understanding the effects of protein supplementation on appetite and energy intake is therefore key when investigating the potential efficacy for use in improving health outcomes. This systematic review aimed to assess the literature investigating the effects of protein supplementation on energy intake, and/or appetite in healthy older adults.PubMed and The Cochrane Library, as well as MEDLINE, CINAHL, EBSCO, and Web of Science databases were searched up to 21 March 2019 for published studies and theses. The review was limited to randomized controlled trials and longitudinal studies in healthy adults over 60 years of age that reported effects of protein supplementation compared to control or pre-intervention on appetite and/or energy intake. The review was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines.Out of 5,429 articles screened, 90 full-texts were reviewed and twenty-six studies (11 acute, 15 longitudinal) included. Studies involved a total of 1439 participants (502 male, 881 females). Of the acute studies, 3 reported conditions in which appetite was suppressed, 5 studies reported no effect and one study reported a condition in which appetite ratings increased following a protein load versus control. Three studies reported conditions in which ad libitum test meal EI was suppressed following protein preload and 7 reported no difference. When examining total EI (accounting for protein supplement and test meal), 2 studies reported no difference and 8 reported conditions where total EI was increased with protein supplement compared to control. Longitudinal studies ranged from 2–26 weeks duration. Two studies reported effects on appetite, one showing hunger to be suppressed on higher (1.0g/kg/d) compared to lower protein diet, and another showing hunger in response to whey consumption increased, but fullness also increased.14 studies reported effects on EI, most commonly assessed by food diary, and all showed no effect of increased protein intake compared to control on daily EI.The systematic review indicates that while appetite may be suppressed under some conditions, the current literature supports protein supplementation in older adults, as it either has a positive effect or no effect on total EI in both short and longer-term studies. Therefore, protein supplementation may represent an effective solution to address protein deficiencies in older adults without compromising daily EI.

How is Satiety Affected When Consuming Food While Working on A Computer?

More people working at offices are choosing to eat meals at their desks, making “desktop dining” an increasingly common phenomenon. Previous studies have reported that environmental distractors, such as television viewing, can influence meal intake and subsequent snack intake. However, the impact of stressful mental tasks on eating behavior has received relatively less attention, focusing only on subsequent meal intake or concurrent snack intake. This study sets out to determine whether eating while working influenced current meal energy intake. This research also examined the relationship between dietary restraint status and energy intake. A crossover experimental design was employed requiring participants (14 males and 29 females) to eat pizza quietly and at rest (control), and while working on a computer (work). Measurements included BMI, energy intake, state anxiety, restrained eating behavior, stress levels (pre- and post-eating), and appetite (before and after both work and control sessions). The findings showed that consuming food while working on a computer significantly increased stress but had no influence on energy intake compared to the control condition. However, post-eating hunger levels were significantly higher in the work condition compared to the control condition. As expected, satiety levels decreased significantly from pre- to post-eating for both work and control conditions. In addition, no significant relationship was observed between restrained eating behavior and energy intake in both work and control conditions. These results suggest that eating while working affected satiety of normal weight participants, as indicated by the significant difference in post-meal satiety levels between work and control conditions.