Ursinii Research Articles

Preliminary Approach on the Estimation of Ponto-Sarmatic Habitats’ Preservation in NE Romania via Herpetological Indicators

The present scientific approach proposes a preliminary study on habitat suitability and factors’ influence using the herpetological indicator Vipera ursinii moldavica and is intended to depict well adapted preservation measures for the Ponto-Sarmatic ecosystems in the context of increased human pressure. The primary goal is to establish an impact hierarchy for the controlling factors. The study incorporates various natural and human related factors via correspondence analysis in order to mark out for the most influential ones. The goal is to enhance understanding of variables’ contribution to the process and find appropriate intervention measures as far as the Natura 2000 Management Plans are concerned

Fine‐scale regional distribution modelling of rare and threatened species: bridging GIS Tools and conservation in practice

AbstractAimSnakes are more vulnerable to extinction than many other taxa. Additionally, their secretive behaviour makes it difficult to acquire the baseline ecological knowledge required to reliably evaluate extinction risks. Consequently, the conservation status of snakes has only been assessed for small populations; reliable methods for large‐scale evaluation remain to be tested. In this study, we explored how habitat‐suitability models (HSMs) could be used to provide relevant information to help assess extinction risks and formulate appropriate conservation strategies for the Orsini's viper (Vipera ursinii), a rare, endangered snake species.LocationProvence‐Alpes‐Côte d'Azur region in south‐eastern France (c. 30,000 km²).MethodsWe developed a high‐resolution HSM (50 × 50 m) using a large sample of species presence data and nine climatic and land cover predictors. We used this model to predict the potential distribution of the Orsini's viper as well as to investigate the main environmental drivers explaining this distribution. We also assessed the geographical barriers between local populations and tested whether forest cutting would reduce fragmentation.ResultsThe occurrence of the Orsini's viper was strongly correlated with the annual cumulative temperature and with vegetation cover type. The total extent of suitable habitat covered 2.98% of the study area and was highly fragmented into 1417 distinct areas. Among these areas of suitable habitat, 21 were confirmed to have the species. These represented 22,134 ha and a potential carrying capacity of 168,000 individuals.Main conclusionsOur HSM was consistent with the past assessment of the distribution of the Orsini's viper. Our HSM represents a sound benchmark for the distribution of the species and can provide a powerful tool to help with the search of new populations, the identification of areas for habitat restoration, the test conservation strategies and effects of climate change. We found that forest cutting may lead to reconnect close isolated areas of suitable habitat.

Reconfigurable Architecture for Elliptic Curve Cryptography Using FPGA

The high performance of an elliptic curve (EC) crypto system depends efficiently on the arithmetic in the underlying finite field. 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The proposed architecture is based on Lopez-Dahab elliptic curve point multiplication algorithm, which uses Gaussian normal basis for <svg style="vertical-align:-2.3205pt;width:58.950001px;" id="M4" height="18.799999" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 58.950001 18.799999" width="58.950001" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,15.85)"><use xlink:href="#x47"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,12.217,15.85)"><use xlink:href="#x46"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,21.209,15.85)"><use xlink:href="#x28"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,27.091,15.85)"><use xlink:href="#x32"/></g> <g transform="matrix(.012,-0,0,-.012,35.25,7.688)"><use xlink:href="#x31"/></g><g transform="matrix(.012,-0,0,-.012,40.961,7.688)"><use xlink:href="#x36"/></g><g transform="matrix(.012,-0,0,-.012,46.673,7.688)"><use xlink:href="#x33"/></g> <g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,53.012,15.85)"><use xlink:href="#x29"/></g> </svg> field arithmetic. The proposed <svg style="vertical-align:-2.3205pt;width:58.950001px;" id="M5" height="18.725" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 58.950001 18.725" width="58.950001" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,15.775)"><use xlink:href="#x47"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,12.217,15.775)"><use xlink:href="#x46"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,21.209,15.775)"><use xlink:href="#x28"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,27.091,15.775)"><use xlink:href="#x32"/></g> <g transform="matrix(.012,-0,0,-.012,35.25,7.613)"><use xlink:href="#x31"/></g><g transform="matrix(.012,-0,0,-.012,40.961,7.613)"><use xlink:href="#x39"/></g><g transform="matrix(.012,-0,0,-.012,46.673,7.613)"><use xlink:href="#x33"/></g> <g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,53.012,15.775)"><use xlink:href="#x29"/></g> </svg> is based on an efficient Montgomery add and double algorithm, also the Karatsuba-Ofman multiplier and Itoh-Tsujii algorithm are used as the inverse component. The hardware design is based on optimized finite state machine (FSM), with a single cycle 193 bits multiplier, field adder, and field squarer. The another proposed architecture <svg style="vertical-align:-2.3205pt;width:58.950001px;" id="M6" height="18.799999" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 58.950001 18.799999" width="58.950001" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,15.85)"><use xlink:href="#x47"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,12.217,15.85)"><use xlink:href="#x46"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,21.209,15.85)"><use xlink:href="#x28"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,27.091,15.85)"><use xlink:href="#x32"/></g> <g transform="matrix(.012,-0,0,-.012,35.25,7.688)"><use xlink:href="#x32"/></g><g transform="matrix(.012,-0,0,-.012,40.961,7.688)"><use xlink:href="#x35"/></g><g transform="matrix(.012,-0,0,-.012,46.673,7.688)"><use xlink:href="#x36"/></g> <g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,53.012,15.85)"><use xlink:href="#x29"/></g> </svg> is based on applications for which compactness is more important than speed. The FPGA&#x2019;s dedicated multipliers and carry-chain logic are used to obtain the small data path. The different optimization at the hardware level improves the acceleration of the ECC scalar multiplication, increases frequency and the speed of operation such as key generation, encryption, and decryption. Finally, we have to implement our design using Xilinx XC4VLX200 FPGA device.

Intermittent breeding and the dynamics of resource allocation to reproduction, growth and survival

Summary In iteroparous organisms, the timing of reproduction varies greatly and reproduction may be intermittent. Here, we investigate the proximate determinants of intermittent breeding and their evolutionary significance in a viviparous snake, the meadow viper Vipera ursinii ursinii. We used individual life‐history data collected over a 28‐year capture–mark–recapture field study. Among viviparous snakes, the meadow viper's almost exclusively insectivorous diet is remarkable. Breeding females maintain substantial foraging activity during gestation. The life cycle is iteroparous, and female breeding frequency is essentially biennial. Breeding status is strongly associated with a threshold on female body condition prior to vitellogenesis. Non‐breeding females grow and store fat reserves needed for future reproduction. Breeding females convert reserves into eggs, the number of which is determined by maternal size and body condition prior to vitellogenesis. During pregnancy, females stop growing. Females survive breeding and non‐breeding years with equal probabilities. Our results suggest that income resources during pregnancy are used to fully cover the costs of gestation. Integration of our data into a matrix population model allowed us to relate breeding pattern to fitness. According to the model, biennial breeding is strongly favoured by natural selection if consecutive breeding decreases maternal survival and/or fecundity. Growth cessation during breeding years generates weak selection pressures for intermittent breeding.

Phylogeography of the Vipera ursinii complex (Viperidae): mitochondrial markers reveal an east–west disjunction in the Palaearctic region

AbstractAim The aim of this study was to elucidate the phylogeographical pattern of taxa composing the Vipera ursinii complex, for which the taxonomic status and the dating of splitting events have been the subject of much debate. The objectives were to delimit potential refugia and to date splitting events in order to suggest a scenario that explains the diversification of this species complex.Location Western Europe to Central Asia.Methods Sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4 (ND4) genes were analysed for 125 individuals from 46 locations throughout the distribution range of the complex. The phylogeographical structure was investigated using Bayesian and maximum likelihood methods. Molecular dating was performed using three calibration points to estimate the timing of diversification.Results Eighty‐nine haplotypes were observed from the concatenation of the two genes. Phylogenetic inferences supported two main groups, referred to in this study as the ‘ursinii clade’ and the ‘renardi clade’, within which several subclades were identified. Samples from Greece (Vipera ursinii graeca) represented the first split within the V. ursinii complex. In addition, three main periods of diversification were revealed, mainly during the Pleistocene (2.4–2.0 Ma, 1.4 Ma and 1.0–0.6 Ma).Main conclusions The present distribution of the V. ursinii complex seems to have been shaped by Quaternary climatic fluctuations, and the Balkan, Caucasus and Carpathian regions are identified in this study as probable refugia. Our results support a south–north pattern of colonization, in contrast to the north–south colonization previously proposed for this complex. The biogeographical history of the V. ursinii complex corroborates other biogeographical studies that have revealed an east–west disjunction (situated near the Black Sea) within a species complex distributed throughout the Palaearctic region.

Reconfigurable Architecture for Network processing

The high performance of an elliptic curve (EC) crypto system depends efficiently on the arithmetic in the underlying finite field. We have to propose and compare two levels of Galois Field GF(2 163 ) and GF(2 193 ). The proposed architecture is based on Lopez-Dehab elliptic curve point multiplication algorithm, which uses Gaussian normal basis for GF(2 163 ) field arithmetic. In which derived parallelized elliptic curve point doubling and addition algorithms with uniform addressing are based on Lopez-Dehab method. The proposed GF(2 193 ) is based on an efficient Montgomery add and double algorithm, also the karatsuba-offman multiplier and Itoh-Tsjuii algorithm are used as the inverse component. The hardware design is based on optimized Finite State Machine(FSM), with a single cycle 193 bits multiplier, field adder and field squarer . The different optimization at the hardware level improves the acceleration of the ECC scalar multiplication; increases frequency and the speed of operation such as key generation, encryption and decryption. Finally we have to implement our design using Xilinx XC4VLX200 FPGA device.

Characteristics and heritability analysis of head scales of the Hungarian meadow viper (Vipera ursinii rakosiensis, Méhely 1893)

The objective of our research was to determine the heritability of head scale numbers ofVipera ursinii rakosiensis. 430 specimens (177 males and 253 females) were included in the analysis, most of which were born and raised in the Hungarian Meadow Viper Conservation Centre between 2004 and 2008. Due to the controlled breeding conditions, the dams of the offspring were known, and the sires were known in 51% of the cases. Only the ancestors of the wild caught specimens were unknown, but these animals were included as parents in the analysis. Photographic identification was used to identify and characterise the specimens, the majority over consecutive years. We counted the following scales: loreal-, circumocular-, apical-, and crown (intercanthal- and intersupraocular-) shields, as well as presence-absence data of other characteristics which are detailed further in the article. The variance and covariance components were determined via the restricted maximum likelihood method. The repeatability animal model consisted of the year of birth and the sex of the snakes as fixed effects, the dam as permanent environmental, and the animal as random effects. Heritability values varied between 0.32 and 0.70. We also report scale numbers and statistics of differences between scale numbers of sexes.

A mitochondrial DNA phylogeny of the endangered vipers of the Vipera ursinii complex

The last two populations of the Hungarian meadow viper Vipera ursinii rakosiensis were thought to persist in the steppe fragments of Hungary until meadow vipers were discovered in central Romania (Transylvania), suggesting a possible existence of remnant populations elsewhere. We assessed the phylogenetic position of the Transylvanian vipers using 2030bp of mitochondrial DNA sequence. We showed that they were closely related to the Hungarian vipers, while those from northeastern Romania (Moldavia) and Danube Delta belonged to the subspecies Vipera ursinii moldavica. Montane subspecies from Europe (Vipera ursinii ursinii and Vipera ursinii macrops) formed a sister clade to the two lowland subspecies. Vipera renardi formed a sister clade to V. ursinii, with populations from the Greater Caucasus (Vipera renardi lotievi) and Tien Shan (Vipera renardi tienshanica) as the sister group to Vipera renardi renardi, and Vipera renardi eriwanensis from the Lesser Caucasus as the most basal taxon in the species. Our results illustrate that the divergence between the lowland and montane populations occurred separately in each species and several times in V. renardi. We demonstrated that the recently discovered Transylvanian population is the third surviving population of V. u. rakosiensis and the only known population outside of Hungary.

Different Forms of Melanism and Its Development with Age in the Populations of Steppe Viper &lt;i&gt;Vipera renardi&lt;/i&gt; (Christoph, 1861)

Melanistic coloration has been observed in the populations of Vipera renardi in Krasnodar Region. Various forms of melanistic pattern of coloration and its development with age are analyzed.

New polymorphic microsatellite markers of the endangered meadow viper (Vipera ursinii) identified by 454 high-throughput sequencing: when innovation meets conservation

The Next Generation Sequencing (pyrosequencing) technique allows rapid, low-cost development of microsatellite markers. We have used this technology to develop 14 polymorphic loci for the endangered meadow viper (Vipera ursinii). Based on 37,000 reads, we developed primers for 66 microsatellite loci and found that 14 were polymorphic. The number of alleles per locus varies from 1 to 12 (for 30 individuals tested). At a cost of about 1/3 that of a normal microsatellite development, we were able to define enough microsatellite markers to conduct population genetic studies on a non-model species.

CDNA cloning, structural, and functional analyses of venom phospholipases A2 and a Kunitz-type protease inhibitor from steppe viper Vipera ursinii renardi

Snake venom phospholipases A2 (PLA2s) display a wide array of biological activities and are each characteristic to the venom. Here, we report on the cDNA cloning and characterization of PLA2s from the steppe viper Vipera ursinii renardi venom glands. Among the five distinct PLA2 cDNAs cloned and sequenced, the most common were the clones encoding a basic Ser-49 containing PLA2 (Vur-S49). Other clones encoded either ammodytin analogs I1, I2d and I2a (designated as Vur-PL1, Vur-PL2 and Vur-PL3, respectively) or an ammodytoxin-like PLA2 (Vurtoxin). Additionally, a novel Kunitz-type trypsin inhibitor for this venom species was cloned and sequenced. Comparison of these PLA2 and Kunitz inhibitor sequences with those in the sequence data banks suggests that the viper V. u. renardi is closely related to Vipera ammodytes and Vipera aspis. Separation of V. u. renardi venom components by gel-filtration and ion-exchange chromatography showed the presence of many PLA2 isoforms. Remarkably, the most abundant PLA2 isolated was Vur-PL2 while Vur-S49 analog was in very low yield. There are great differences between the proportion of cDNA clones and that of the proteins isolated. Two Vur-PL2 isoforms (designated as Vur-PL2A and Vur-PL2B) indistinguishable by masses, peptide mass fingerprinting, N-terminal sequences and CD spectroscopy were purified from the pooled venom. However, when rechromatographed on cation-exchanger, Vur-PL2A showed only one peak corresponding to Vur-PL2B, suggesting the existence of conformers for Vur-PL2. Vur-PL2B was weakly cytotoxic to rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells and showed both strong anticoagulant and anti-platelet activities. This is the first case of a strong anticoagulating ammodytin I analog in Vipera venom.

A preliminary study on population characteristics and ecology of the critically endangered meadow viper Vipera ursinii in the Romanian Danube Delta

The present paper discusses preliminary data on population characteristics and ecology of the meadow viper Vipera ursinii in the Romanian Danube Delta. Using line transects and the Distance software, the size of the studied population was estimated at 321 (95% confidence interval: 166–618) individuals on a 62 ha area. The sex-ratio of the population was close to 1:1 and juvenile specimens were well represented. Half of the captured adult females were gravid, possibly indicating a more than annual reproductive cycle. Analysis of sexual dimorphism of 12 morphometric traits indicated significant differences only in tail length and height. No significant relationships were detected between the size, sex, age or reproductive status and the thermal ecology of the vipers. Microhabitat selection and activity patterns varied with age, sex and reproductive status and are probably linked to an onthogenetic shift in feeding ecology and to behavioral differences between reproductive and non-reproductive females.

High Genetic Differentiation Among French Populations of the Orsini’s Viper (Vipera ursinii ursinii) Based on Mitochondrial and Microsatellite Data: Implications for Conservation Management

The Orsini's viper (Vipera ursinii) is one of the most threatened snakes in Europe due to its highly fragmented distribution and specific open environment (steppic habitat) requirement. French populations are isolated on top of mountain massifs of the southern Prealps/Alps. Mitochondrial sequences (cytochrome b) and 6 microsatellite loci have been used to estimate the levels of genetic diversity and isolation within and among 11 French fragmented populations (a total of 157 individuals). Eleven cytochrome b haplotypes with a limited divergence were observed (mean divergence between haplotypes: 0.31%). However, we detected considerable genetic differentiation among populations (global F(ST) = 0.76 and 0.26 for mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, respectively). Results indicate that 3 populations possibly went through a bottleneck and 1 population showed low genetic diversity compared with the others. Although a significant isolation by distance was detected for both markers, strong differentiation was also observed between geographically close populations, probably due to the ragged landscape that constitutes a serious barrier to gene flow owing to the limited dispersal capability of the viper. Despite some discrepancies between the 2 markers, 8 Management Units have been identified and should be considered for future management projects.

Sex-specific fitness returns are too weak to select for non-random patterns of sex allocation in a viviparous snake

When environmental conditions exert sex-specific selection on offspring, mothers should benefit from biasing their sex allocation towards the sex with the highest fitness in a given environment. Yet, studies show mixed support for such adaptive strategies in vertebrates, which may be due to mechanistic constraints and/or weak selection on facultative sex allocation. In an attempt to disentangle these alternatives, we quantified sex-specific fitness returns and sex allocation (sex ratio and sex-specific mass at birth) according to maternal factors (body size, age, birth date, and litter size), habitat, and year in a viviparous snake with genotypic sex determination. We used data on 106 litters from 19years of field survey in two nearby habitats occupied by the meadow viper Vipera ursinii ursinii in south-eastern France. Maternal reproductive investment and habitat quality had no differential effects on the growth and survival of sons and daughters. Sex ratio at birth was balanced despite a slight female-biased mortality before birth. No sexual mass dimorphism between offspring was evident. Sex allocation was almost random apart for a trend towards more male-biased litters as females grew older, which could be explained by an inbreeding avoidance strategy. Thus, a weak selection for facultative sex allocation seems sufficient to explain the almost equal sex allocation in the meadow viper.

Cohort variation in offspring growth and survival: prenatal and postnatal factors in a late‐maturing viviparous snake

1. Recruitment to adulthood plays an important role in the population dynamics of late-maturing organisms as it is usually variable. Compared to birds and mammals, few studies assessing the contributions to this variation of environmental factors, offspring traits and maternal traits have been carried out for late-maturing snakes. 2. Cohort variation in recruitment through offspring growth and survival in the meadow viper (Vipera ursinii ursinii) was evaluated from 13 years of mark-recapture data collected at Mont Ventoux, France. In this species, females are mature at the age of 4-6 years and adult survival and fecundity rates are high and constant over time. 3. Offspring were difficult to catch during the first 3 years of their lives, but their mean annual probability of survival was reasonably high (0.48 +/- 0.11 SE). Mass and body condition at birth (mass residuals) varied significantly between years, decreased with litter size, and increased with maternal length. 4. Cohorts of offspring in better condition at birth grew faster, but offspring growth was not affected by sex, habitat or maternal traits. 5. Survival varied considerably between birth cohorts, some cohorts having a high-survival rate and others having essentially no survivors. No difference in mass or body condition at birth was found between cohorts with 'no survival' and 'good survival'. However, offspring survival in cohorts with good survival was positively correlated with mass at birth and negatively correlated with body condition at birth. 6. Thus, variation in offspring performance was influenced by direct environmental effects on survival and indirect environmental effects on growth, mediated by body condition at birth. Effects of maternal traits were entirely channelled through offspring traits.

When do meadow vipers (Vipera ursinii) become sexually dimorphic? – ontogenetic patterns of sexual size dimorphisms

Contrary to an increasing number of papers that document sexual dimorphism in size (and/or shape) in adults, studies dealing with sex differences in newborn and juvenile snakes are surprisingly scarce. Data about ontogenetic shifts in sexual dimorphism are generally lacking and hence, it is unclear whether sex differences are set at birth or arise post-natally. In this study, we analyzed patterns of sexual dimorphism in body size, head dimensions and tail length (TL) among newborn, subadult and adult meadow vipers (Vipera ursinii) from the Bjelasica Mt. in Montenegro. Patterns of sexual size dimorphisms differed among traits. There was no significant difference in head dimension of males and females, but adult snakes were sexually dimorphic in body size. Sexual differences in TL were evident since birth but changed in degree throughout ontogeny. Neonate meadow vipers presented highly significant inter-litter variation in the sexual dimorphism of all traits we have measured. Such family effects may have an important influence on extent of inter-sexual differences in snakes and should be included in analyses of sexual dimorphism.

Quaternary Galois field adder based all-optical multivalued logic circuits

Galois field (GF) algebraic expressions have been found to be promising choices for reversible and quantum implementation of multivalued logic. For the first time to our knowledge, we developed GF(4) adder multivalued (four valued) logic circuits in an all-optical domain. The principle and possibilities of an all-optical GF(4) adder circuit are described. The theoretical model is presented and verified through numerical simulation. The quaternary inverter, successor, clockwise cycle, and counterclockwise cycle gates are proposed with the help of the all-optical GF(4) adder circuit. In this scheme different quaternary logical states are represented by different polarized light. A terahertz optical asymmetric demultiplexer interferometric switch plays an important role in this scheme.

Prescribed fire and conservation of a threatened mountain grassland specialist: a capture–recapture study on the Orsini's viper in the French alps

AbstractBurning has traditionally been used in the southern French Alps to maintain open lands for grazing. In the context of land use abandonment, prescribed burning may be the only realistic practical tool available to oppose encroachment by woody plants in numerous mountainous landscapes. Although only recently developed as a modern tool for wildfire prevention and management of pastoral grasslands, this practice is now becoming widespread, which raises the issue of its impact on the fauna in general, and on endangered species in particular. We studied the impact of a prescribed fire on the survival and small‐scale movements of one of the rarest snakes in Europe, the Orsini's viper Vipera ursinii, in order to evaluate its potential threat to population sustainability. We evaluated the body condition of snakes and the quality of their habitat, more precisely the abundance of grasshoppers as the main food resource, and the vegetation cover as shelter. About 3.6 ha of a 8.8 ha study site was burnt in autumn 2003. Snake population parameters were estimated using multi‐state capture–mark–recapture methods. We demonstrate that burning reduced the survival of the vipers by more than half during the first year following the fire. Contrary to what was expected, there was no evidence of emigration from the burned to the unburned area immediately after the fire. Despite the decrease in grasshopper density and vegetation cover in the burned area, there was no evidence of mid‐term mortality in snakes that could result from an increased predation rate or from the reduced body condition of snakes. As such high mortality, mainly or entirely due to the direct effect of fire, is likely to have large repercussions on population sustainability, we suggest several improvements of prescribed fire protocols to minimize their impact and strongly emphasize the need for a prescribed fire policy that takes into account specific recommendations for threatened species like Orsini's viper. The case of the Orsini's viper is very typical of conservation problems in open mountain lands, and we believe that our research will help determine the most suitable approach for long‐term conservation of biodiversity in such semi‐natural ecosystems.

Evidence for post-natal instability of head scalation in the meadow viper (Vipera ursinii) – patterns and taxonomic implications

AbstractIn Squamates, head meristic characters are commonly used in analyses of intraspecific variability, systematics and phylogeny. Taxonomic significance of head scales is based on the assumption that discrete values of particular scales are set at birth and stable during individual ontogeny. In this paper, we analysed ontogenic changes of head scalation in a population of meadow viper (Vipera ursinii), based on multiple recaptures of marked individuals. Our results show that changes of cephalic scales occur both in immatures and in adults; the frequency of occurrence of change in the sample of re-photographed individuals was 52.2%. Oligomerisation was the most frequent change, found in 39.1% of re-photographed individuals. Changes in shape of cephalic plates as well as polymerisation were recorded in 30.4% of re-photographed individuals. Results of the log-linear analyses indicated no relation either between scale change and sex or between scale change and growth. Although we do not suggest that meristic characters of head scales are completely inadequate for taxonomic use, we point out the need for taking into account the ontogenic trajectories of these characters when analysing intra- and interpopulation variability, in systematics and phylogeny.

Ecological Relationships between Sympatric Vipera Aspis and Vipera Ursinii in High-Altitude Habitats of Central Italy

The ecological relationships between two sympatric vipers (Vipera aspis and Vipera ursinii) were studied at a mountainous area in central Italy (Gran Sasso, Abruzzo), between spring 2004 and autumn 2006. The two species differed significantly in their altitudinal distribution: V. ursinii being confined to the higher elevations (above 1650 m elevation), and V. aspis being present from the lowest to the highest altitudes (1200-1900 m). We recorded a wide sector of approximately 250 m elevation (between 1650 and 1900 m elevation) where the two species overlapped. In these areas, the two species exhibited significant difference in microhabitat use and diet composition. Male and female V. aspis were larger (SVL) than male and female V. ursinii. Furthermore, the two species exhibited a significant difference in sexual size dimorphism, with females being larger than males in V. ursinii, whereas no such difference in SVL was observed in V. aspis. However, we did not observe any difference in SVL of male and female vipers when comparing sympatric and allopatric populations. Overall, the potential for competition between these two species appears to be low because of their clearly different realized ecological niches. The ecology of European vipers has received considerable interest since the pioneering stud- ies conducted by Saint Girons (1952, 1978, 1980). Some European viperids (notably Vipera berus) are currently among the ecologically best known snake species in the world (e.g., Madsen, 1988; Madsen and Stille, 1988; Madsen and Shine, 1992a). However, most studies have focused on the population biology of a single species (e.g., Madsen and Shine, 1992b, c), whereas comparatively few studies have ex- plored the population biology of sympatric populations (for a review, see Luiselli, 2006a). The first study on the ecology of sympatric viper populations was a field study on Vipera aspis and V. berus in Western France (Saint Girons, 1975). After this pioneer study, only a few detailed studies have been conducted, the most significant being those on sympatric V. aspis and V. berus populations in the mountains of Switzerland (Monney, 1996) and on sympat- ric Vipera seoanei and Vipera latastei populations in the northwestern Iberian peninsula (Brito and Crespo, 2002; Martinez et al., 2006). In general, these studies suggest that sympatric vipers tend to partition the habitat niche axis to minimize competition, whereas their diets and activity patterns are very similar (Luiselli, 2006a). However, much still needs to be known concerning the ecological relationships of sym- patric European viper populations to further test competition/niche partitioning issues and also to explore conservation implications of threatened species/populations. In this paper, we describe the ecological relationships be- tween two viper species, the European Asp (V. aspis) and the Meadow Viper (Vipera ursinii), in a mountainous area of central Italy. The Meadow Viper is an endangered species which inhabits a few scattered mountain peaks in Western Europe (Bruno, 1985; Bombi et al., 2006).