Meadow Pipit Research Articles

Introduction of summer houses into semi‐natural habitats: impacts on ground‐nesting birds

AbstractDegradation of natural and semi‐natural habitats is often initiated and facilitated by expansions in anthropogenic infrastructures. Identifying and reducing the impact of anthropogenic structures on the wildlife that these habitats support is vital for biodiversity conservation. In Iceland, the number of summer houses has increased over the past two decades, from ~10 000 to 15 000, and >7000 additional plots for summer house construction have been approved. Most of this housing infrastructure development is in the Icelandic lowlands, which support internationally important populations of several ground‐nesting bird species. To explore the effects of summer house infrastructure on the distribution of ground‐nesting birds, we conducted surveys at 292 points within 71 sites with varying density of houses and associated infrastructure (tracks, decking, etc). Significant reductions in abundance with increasing housing density occurred in five (Golden Plover (Pluvialis apricaria), Black‐tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa), Redshank (Tringa totanus), Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus) and Meadow pipit (Anthus pratensis)) of the seven study species, while one species (Snipe (Gallinago gallinago)) showed no change and one (Redwing (Turdus iliacus)) increased. The differences in abundance between plots with no houses and plots with high house densities (>0.5 houses ha−1) ranged from 34 to 95%, despite the housing infrastructure covering only ~6% of the area of these plots. These findings suggest that even relatively low densities of anthropogenic structures in natural or semi‐natural areas can have substantial impacts on wildlife in the surrounding areas and highlight the urgent need for effective planning regulations to limit the expansion of anthropogenic structures into currently undisturbed habitats, particularly in areas of high biodiversity value.

Variation in reproductive success in a fragmented Meadow Pipit population: a role for vegetation succession?

Most farmland birds experience strong declines across Europe. These declines are typically associated with agricultural intensification but research on alternative local causes remains scarce. We investigated variation in reproductive success as a potential driver for the observed population declines in a fragmented population of the Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis, a representative inhabitant of extensively managed mountain grasslands across Europe. Intense nest surveys in the entire Meadow Pipit metapopulation of the Northern Black Forest (SW Germany) between 2020 and 2022 provided information on reproductive success for 53 females distributed across nine habitat patches along an 18 km ridge of the Northern Black Forest. Hatching dates delayed by approx. 5.0 days per 100 m altitude and were almost 10 days later in a year with cold and rainy spring weather. Mean reproductive success per female and year (3.45 fledglings) was low compared to literature values (approx. 4.5) and may thus drive ongoing population declines. Mayfield nest survival estimates (approx. 51% across the nesting period) were comparably high, with most nest failures linked with predation or adverse weather. Low reproductive success further associated with comparably small clutch sizes and low fractions of second broods in habitat patches characterized by homogeneously dense swards. We suggest that restoration through extensive permanent cattle grazing coupled with succession control may be a key factor to increase population productivity.

Ticks and Tick-Borne Zoonotic Pathogens from Wild Birds in Northwestern Coastal Spain

Migratory and local birds may disperse ticks and their associated pathogens. The aim of this study was to provide information regarding ticks infesting birds in Asturias, a region that accounts for most of the Lyme disease hospitalizations in Spain. From September 2021 to April 2023, trained and experienced bird-banders collected ticks from birds in two estuary and four forest locations. A total of 1698 birds (52 species, 38 genera, and 26 families) were captured. A total of 51 ticks (28 larvae, 20 nymphs, and 3 females) were collected from 43 birds, belonging to three species: Ixodes ricinus (31), Ixodes frontalis (18), and Haemaphysalis concinna (1). The average prevalence of tick infestation was 2.5% and the average tick burden was 1.2 ticks per infested host. The bird species Turdus merula, Parus major, Luscinia svecica, and Anthus pratensis were among the most infested. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was detected in one I. ricinus nymph collected from Phylloscopus collybita. We have not detected Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., Rickettsia spp., Coxiella burnetii, or piroplasmids in any of the 51 analyzed ticks. These results suggest low infestation rate in migratory/estuary birds and a higher rate in forest/sedentary ones. Despite this, the detection of pathogens, although with low prevalence, can pose a risk to public health.

Food Provisioning and Body Mass of Nestling Meadow Pipits and Cuckoos

Common Cuckoos Cuculus canorus are obligate brood parasites, laying eggs in nests of other species. Cuckoo nestlings are often thought to be insatiable, compared to host broods. However, in Reed Warblers Acrocephalus scirpaceus and a few other species, cuckoo nestlings are fed at most only as frequently as a host brood. To add to the small body of knowledge on feeding frequencies and body mass development of Cuckoo nestlings, I studied Cuckoos using another host, the Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis, in the Dutch dunes (2019–2021). By filming feeding parents (hosts) I determined the provisioning frequency for broods of Pipits and for nestling Cuckoos. I found that nestling Cuckoos receive on average fewer feeds per hour than broods of Meadow Pipits. Furthermore, overall Cuckoos received as many feeds during their 22-day nestling period as a brood of Pipits during their 13 days in the nest. At 13 days of age (day 1 is the day of hatching), the single Cuckoo was as heavy as a brood of four Meadow Pipits. At 22 days, the maximum weights of the nestling Cuckoos were greater than the Meadow Pipit broods and varied between 91 and 105 g. Thus, although Cuckoos are being fed less frequently, young Cuckoos are heavier at fledging than a whole brood of Pipits. This could be because Cuckoos are fed larger prey. Alternatively, Cuckoos may require less food because their thermoregulatory costs could be smaller: they have almost black skin which absorbs solar radiation efficiently, do not have to compete with siblings in the nest and, once older and feathered, have a smaller surface-to-volume ratio than a Pipit brood of four nestlings.

How farmland birds react to traffic noise?

The effect of vehicle noise on farmland birds living in the vicinity of very busy roads was investigated. The study was conducted on two plots of crop fields located near national roads Nr. 12 and 19, the most important trunk roads in Poland and the eastern part of the Europe. The results of the current study are of wide relevance because crop fields are the dominant landscape type in both Poland and Europe. The conservation of the animals, including birds, living in such habitats is a priority issue in view of the strong pressure from human activities and the intensification of agriculture. The fieldwork was carried out in monthly from April to June 2020 and included counting birds in three rows of listening-observation points situated at 50, 150 and 250 m from the roads. At each observation point, all farmland and meadow birds seen and heard during a five-minute period were recorded, as was the maximum ambient noise level during this time. With increasing distance from the roads, the level of noise decreased while the number of individual birds and observed species increased. Most of the birds recorded, like skylark, lapwing, whinchat, yellowhammer, meadow pipit, pheasant, and common quail, avoided the vicinity of the roads. In contrast, the abundant yellow wagtail appeared to be insensitive to traffic noise and was evenly distributed over the two study plots. The roads and their associated traffic noise had a negative impact over a distance of about 100 m. At that distance, noise levels above 53–60 dB led to sharp falls in bird densities. Bird mortality due to collisions with vehicles was low because noise combined with the lack of attractive roadside habitats effectively deterred birds from the vicinity of the roads.

Effects of overhead power‐lines on the density of ground‐nesting birds in open sub‐arctic habitats

Yearly electricity production has increased steadily worlwide in recent decades and the associated overhead power lines are widespread and occur across urban and natural habitats, and often in remote areas where there is little other anthropogenic influence. Here we assessed the effects of overhead power lines on the density of ground‐nesting birds in the Icelandic lowlands, which host several populations of international importance. The combined breeding density of the eight study species increased significantly from ~ 112 birds/km2 close (< 50 m) to the power lines to ~ 177 birds/km2 away (450–500 m) from the power lines, with two of these species (Eurasian Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus and Common Redshank Tringa totanus) increasing significantly with distance from power lines and six species (European Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria, Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago, Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis, Black‐tailed Godwit Limosa limosa, Dunlin Calidris alpina and Redwing Turdus iliacus) showing no changes. These findings suggest that power lines can influence the breeding density of ground‐nesting bird species in their vicinity and that accounting for such effects when planning future infrastructure will be imperative.

Composition of nests constructed by species in the Motacillidae, Sylviidae and Prunellidae

Bird nests can be complex bio-engineered structures constructed from a range of materials to provide a site for incubation, and in many species chick rearing. Reports of the materials used in nest walls and cup linings are typically qualitative and do not assist in understanding the functional properties of the structure as a whole. This paper provides size and composition data for nests from four species of the Motacillidae family: the meadow pipit ( Anthus pratensis), pied wagtail ( Motacilla alba), grey wagtail ( Motacilla cinerea), and the yellow wagtail ( Motacilla flava), three species of the Sylviidae family: willow warbler ( Phylloscopus trochilus), Eurasian reed warbler ( Acrocephalus scirpaceus) and Eurasian blackcap ( Sylvia atricapilla), and the dunnock ( Prunella modularis) of the Prunellidae family. Three hypotheses were tested: do nest dimensions correlate with body mass? Is it possible to distinguish among species based on their nest composition; and for individual species? Is it possible to distinguish between the cup lining and outer nest wall based on the materials used in construction? Nest composition and size varied among species although the degree of intra-specific variation was different. Size of a nest was unrelated to average female adult body mass. Composition relied on similar types of materials but in differing quantities between species. It was possible to distinguish among species in terms of nest construction, and between the cup lining and the outer nest, on the basis of at least one of the component materials. By providing quantitative data on composition, it may be possible in the future to understand better the structural, insulative and hydrological properties of the nest. Such information will be invaluable as we begin to develop an understanding of the factors that have driven evolution of nest architecture.

The signal value of vocalisations revealing auditory threat assessment in meadow pipit males (Anthus pratensis)

ABSTRACT If territorial males are able to assess the extent of threat posed by con- and heterospecific intruders in an area of sympatry, they could optimise the expression of territorial behaviour. I broadcast recorded vocalisation types of meadow and rock pipit males in the centre of territories to address the following questions: (1) do meadow pipit males respond to conspecific Soft calls, the (’contact’) call emitted by conspecific birds that do not represent a threat to territory or the resident male’s mate; (2) if so, how intensely do they respond to conspecific Soft calls compared with more provocative vocalisations emitted during territorial defence, including the Tsip call elicited by a watching male, or the species-specific part of song (Motif II) – associated with a serious territorial threat; (3) do they discriminate between the homologous Soft calls of meadow and rock pipits? Territorial males responded to conspecific Soft calls as often as to the other two vocalisation types broadcast in territories, but they did not approach the speaker as immediately or as often as to either Tsip or Motif II calls. The latter call elicits a more intense response compared with Tsip. Meadow pipit males discriminate conspecific from heterospecific Soft calls by showing enhanced response to conspecific relative to heterospecific Soft calls.

The Shetland Bird Survey: population trends for widespread breeding birds 2002–2019

ABSTRACT Capsule Population trends are estimated for the first time for 12 species based on Shetland Breeding Bird Survey data collected between 2002 and 2019. Aim To provide population trends for a selection of commoner breeding waders and passerines on the Shetland Isles, the most northerly region of the UK, which has historically been under-represented in national bird monitoring schemes. Methods One hundred and forty-five self-selected 1-km2 squares were surveyed between 2002 and 2019 using similar methods to the BTO/JNCC/RSPB Breeding Bird Survey (BBS), the main breeding bird monitoring scheme in the UK. Results Over 17 years, Eurasian Oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus, Northern Lapwing Vanellus vanellus, and Common Redshank Tringa totanus populations declined whilst Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata and Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago showed no significant changes in their population trends. For passerines, Common Skylark Alauda arvensis and Northern Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe populations declined, whilst Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris, Common Blackbird Turdus merula, and House Sparrow Passer domesticus increased. Winter Wren Troglodytes troglodytes and Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis showed no significant population changes. Comparisons with BBS trends for the UK and for Scotland are provided. For Eurasian Curlew, Common Starling, and House Sparrow, trends were more favourable in Shetland than elsewhere in UK. Conclusion The Shetland Breeding Bird Survey provides useful trends for several bird species, which include important breeding numbers of Winter Wren and Common Starling (both endemic subspecies), as well as nationally important wader populations. We recommend increasing the number of survey squares sampled each year, which would increase the precision of population estimates. The inclusion of a random or stratified element to square selection would help to ensure that these trends are representative of the wider region.

Can microclimate offer refuge to an upland bird species under climate change?

Climate change is a severe threat to biodiversity. Areas with a high variety of microclimates may provide opportunities for species to persist in a changing climate. Test the extent to which microclimate is an important determinant of the distribution of a widespread upland passerine, the meadow pipit Anthus pratensis, and whether microclimate becomes an increasingly important determinant of distribution towards the warm edge of the species’ range. We used models of the occurrence of meadow pipits based on data from an extensive survey to identify macroclimate and topographic associations, the latter as proxies of microclimate. We assessed magnitude and direction of the effects of microclimate and whether the magnitude of microclimate effects increases as macroclimate suitability declines. The probability of meadow pipit occurrence is significantly correlated with macroclimate and microclimate. Microclimate accounts for about a third of the variation in occupancy probability and has a stronger effect than macroclimate at all three spatial scales considered. Elevation and topographical wetness index are positively correlated with meadow pipit occurrence, while insolation is negatively correlated. Elevation and macroclimate suitability show a positive interaction, while insolation and macroclimate suitability show a negative interaction. Microclimate substantially influences the distribution of the meadow pipit. For high latitude and upland species such as this, suitable areas on cool slopes could form the focus for conservation protection, as these areas are likely to become increasingly utilised and may remain the only locations occupied in otherwise unsuitable climate.

Avifauna and Important Bird Areas (IBA) of Elazığ Province

Along with the present study, the bird species and wetland status of Elazig province were investigated. According to the observation between October 2016 and May 2018, 181 species belonging to 18 orders and 44 families were identified. Of the reported species herein, 61 are resident (33.7%), 81 are summer visitors (44.8%), 20 are winter visitors (11.1%), and 19 are passage migrant (10.5%). Among these species, it has been determined that 10 species are threatened with extinction at national and international (IUCN) scale. 1 species as EN (Endangered) (Neophron percnopterus), 7 species as NT (Near Threatened) (Gypaetus barbatus, Aegypius monachus, Circus macrourus, Vanellus vanellus, Limosa limosa, Larus armenicus, Anthus pratensis), 2 species as VU (Vulnarable) (Aythya ferina, Streptopelia turtur) were reported here. Herewith the study, by drawing attention to the wetlands that shape the richness of the bird species in Elazig Province, the bird species that breed and stay in those areas and the threats to the species and habitats and the precautions to be taken were investigated.

Livestock grazing impacts components of the breeding productivity of a common upland insectivorous passerine: Results from a long‐term experiment

Abstract The intensity of pastoral management in areas of High Nature Value farming is declining in some regions of Europe but increasing in others. This affects open habitats of conservation concern, such as the British uplands, where bird species that benefit from low‐intensity grazing may be most sensitive to such polarization. While experimental manipulations of livestock grazing intensities have improved our understanding of upland breeding bird responses in the short term, none have examined the long‐term impacts of altered management on reproductive success. Using a replicated landscape‐scale experiment that started in 2003, we investigated the effects of four grazing treatments (intensive sheep; low‐intensity sheep; low‐intensity mixed sheep and cattle; and no grazing) on the breeding productivity of meadow pipits Anthus pratensis, the most common upland passerine. Surveys were carried out systematically during early (2003 and 2004) and late (2015 and 2016) sampling periods of the experiment to compare the short‐ and long‐term effects of grazing treatments on breeding density and productivity of pipits specifically, but also on the overall bird community. Pipit breeding density was lowest under low‐intensity sheep grazing while the highest egg‐stage nest survival was observed in the same treatment, although no significant treatment effects were detected on overall nest survival or fledgling output. There were no significant differences in treatment effects between the sampling periods on any breeding variable, but overall nest survival was lower in the later sampling period across all treatments. Breeding bird species richness differed between treatments in the later sampling period, with highest species richness in the ungrazed treatment. Synthesis and applications. Livestock grazing management can have different outcomes for different upland birds. Our results showed that, with time, meadow pipit breeding productivity tended to be higher when sheep grazing intensity was reduced and/or mixed with cattle, and lower when livestock were removed, but not significantly so. Removal of grazing, however, can significantly increase bird species richness. The long‐term experiment showed an overall decline in fledglings regardless of grazing treatments, potentially a result of increased predator numbers harboured by nearby developing woodland, highlighting the importance of considering wider landscape processes in grazing management decisions.

Declining peatland bird numbers are not consistent with the increasing Common Crane population

The Common Crane (Grus grus) population has experienced an unprecedented increase across Europe during the last decades. Although cranes feed mostly on invertebrates, amphibians and berries during the breeding season, they can also eat eggs and young of other birds. Therefore, conservationists have raised concerns about the potential predatory effect of cranes on wetland avifauna, but the effects of crane predation on bird numbers have so far not been investigated. We here test the relationship between the crane and peatland bird population’ abundances in Finland for five common wader and passerine species, and a set of seven less common waders, using line-transect data spanning from 1987 to 2014. We found that the population densities of two small passerines (Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis and Western Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava) and one wader species (Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola) were positively associated with crane numbers, probably related to a protective effect against nest predators. For the two other common species and the set of less common waders, we did not find any significant relationships with crane abundance. None of the species was influenced by the (lagged) effect of crane presence (i.e. years since crane was first observed). Peatland drainage was responsible for most species’ negative densities, indicating the need to protect and restore peatlands to mitigate the loss of peatland bird diversity in Finland. In addition, openness, wetness and area size were important peatland characteristics positively influencing most of the studied bird populations. The development in crane and other mire bird numbers in Europe should be monitored regularly to reveal any possible future predatory effects contributing to the shaping of the peatland bird community.

Benefits and costs of native reforestation for breeding songbirds in temperate uplands

Global tree planting initiatives may benefit biodiversity depending on woodland type, but ecological effects must be understood when woodland replaces open habitats supporting characteristic wildlife. In the UK's temperate uplands, large-scale reforestation is replacing long-established open ‘moorland’ (heath, bog and grassland) supporting breeding bird communities of conservation importance. We quantified breeding bird species richness and abundance in 8–24 year-old native woodland plantations in Scotland and adjacent moorland and used bird densities to predict potential future abundance changes in woodland and moorland avian indicator species from recent national-level woodland creation policies. Bird species richness at point counts increased with increasing woodland cover, height and age and declined with increasing elevation. Differing abundances of bird species of conservation concern between woodland and moorland were related to their associations with vegetation measures, especially woodland cover and tree species composition. The creation of 54.9 km2 of native woodland in Scotland across 2017 and 2018 predicts reduced Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis (moorland indicator) abundance of 6214 individuals or 0.13% of current UK population, and increased Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus (indicator of young woodland) abundance of 6040 individuals or 0.13% of current UK population. Native woodland plantations comprised c34% of new woodland creation and the projections should be extended to other woodland types in particular non-native commercial conifer forestry. Native reforestation of open ground offers net gains in bird species richness but could disbenefit open-ground birds including those of conservation concern. Where retention of open-ground species is desired, landscape-scale reforestation should consider both woodland and open-ground wildlife.

Reindeer carcasses provide foraging habitat for insectivorous birds of the alpine tundra

On August of 2016, almost an entire herd (n = 323) of wild tundra reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) was killed by lightning on Hardangervidda in southern Norway. While conducting fieldwork for another study in 2017, we opportunistically registered the occurrence and behaviour of birds on carcasses from this mass die-off. Several passerine species other than corvids were observed actively foraging on arthropods, such as blowfly (Calliphoridae sp.) adults and larvae, which are typically associated with carcass decomposition. We quantified observations of those birds, and described their foraging behaviour at the carcass site. In decreasing order of abundance, five passerine species were observed taking arthropods at the site: Meadow Pipit (Anthus pratensis), Northern Wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe), Common Reed Bunting (Emberiza schoeniclus), Bluethroat (Luscinia svecica,), and Lapland Bunting (Calcarius lapponicus). Systematic surveys of passerines utilizing carcass sites would further our understanding of how such resources may affect behaviour and life history of various bird species.

Meadow Birds at the Waning Traditional Pasture Animal Husbandry

Журнал принимает на русском и английском языках статьи, представляющие результаты научных исследований в различных областях теоретической и прикладной экологии. Приоритет отдается научным статьям, основанным на явно сформулированных гипотезах.

Metabarcoding-based dietary analysis of hen harrier (Circus cyaneus) in Great Britain using buccal swabs from chicks

The hen harrier is a heavily persecuted bird of prey in Great Britain since its diet includes Red grouse, a game bird shot in driven and walked-up grouse shooting. Unlike walked-up shooting where shooters walk up moors and flush grouse with dogs, in driven grouse shooting the grouse are driven by beaters towards static shooters. Driven grouse moors (DGMs) are increasingly being managed to sustain high densities of Red grouse intensifying a long-standing conservation conflict between conservationists and grouse moor keepers. A metabarcoding approach was used with degenerate universal cytochrome oxidase I and cytochrome b primers along with hen harrier blocking primers. A novel sampling method was used to detect prey in buccal swab samples from chicks from broods across Great Britain from both managed and unmanaged moorland habitats. This resulted in detection of 62 species of prey across 51 broods with Meadow pipit, Red grouse, Wren, Skylark, and voles being most frequently detected. Frequency of occurrence data and species accumulation curves reveal high incidence of Red grouse and low prey species richness in the diet of hen harriers in DGMs but low incidence of Red grouse and high prey species richness in walked-up and unmanaged moors. Waders were only detected within walked-up and unmanaged moors and not within DGMs where they have been reported to occur at high densities. Regional species detected included endemic species such as the Orkney vole seen only in Orkney. This study represents the first metabarcoding-based dietary analysis in a raptor using buccal swabs.

Brood parasitism on Meadow Pipits Anthus pratensis by Common Cuckoos Cuculus canorus in two mountain areas in Norway

In the period 2001–2014 we studied Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus brood parasitism on Meadow Pipits Anthus pratensis in two mountain areas; one located in the eastern and one in the western part of southern Norway. In the total material of 211 Meadow Pipit nests, 14 (6.6%) were parasitized by the cuckoo. The parasitism rate showed considerable variation both in time and space, with highest rate in one of the areas in 2005 (35.3%). Cuckoo eggs were quite similar in appearance to host eggs. In spite of this, 30% of the cuckoo eggs were rejected by desertion. No host ejection of parasite eggs was observed. Nest predation rates were rather low. Due to climate change, it has been hypothesized that the cuckoo, a long-distance migrant, may arrive too late to successfully utilize the Meadow Pipit because the latter is better able to advance the breeding season due to a shorter migration distance. Our data lend support to the mismatch hypothesis, but the low sample size regarding cases of parasitism does not allow us to make any firm conclusions. Long-term monitoring of host-parasite interactions in specific populations is important to further disclose the mechanisms responsible for the decline in the Norwegian cuckoo population.

Early post-fire bird community in European boreal forest: Comparing salvage-logged with non-intervention areas

Salvage logging after disturbances in forests substantially modifies vegetation structure and dead wood availability, but empirical evidence on its impact on biodiversity, especially in European boreal forest, is sparse. In this study we investigated the short-term effect of post-fire salvage logging on species richness and abundance of birds in recently burned mixed coniferous forest. Using point counts we estimated local species composition at 49 salvaged sites and 55 non-intervention sites (burnt forest left for natural regeneration) that were not logged after a fire in south-central Sweden. Local species richness, abundance and Simpson's species diversity index were significantly higher at non-intervention sites compared to salvaged sites. Forest birds that rely on structurally complex forest stands, such as tits (Parus major, Lophophanes cristatus, Poecile montanus), robin (Erithacus rubecula), mistle trush (Turdus viscivorus) and tree-toed woodpecker (Picoides tridactylus) were mainly associated with non-intervention sites, while species that are typically linked to farm- or shrublands, such as whinchat (Saxicola rubetra), white wagtail (Motacilla alba), red-backed shrike (Lanius collurio), and meadow pipit (Anthus pratensis) were more common at salvaged sites. These results are consistent with the idea that post-fire salvage logging has an immediate impact on the bird species composition and abundance in boreal forest. We conclude that although post-fire salvage logging may be beneficial for birds occurring in open landscapes, it has negative effects for forest bird species richness and abundance, at least over the short term. To protect typical forest communities with many forest specialists of high conservation concern, we recommend reducing the extent of post-disturbance salvaging in forests of high conservation value and updating the existing management policy to restore the amount of woody debris and facilitate long-term structural complexity and biodiversity in densely stocked conifer stands.

Simulated Rainfall Reduces the Insulative Properties of Bird Nests

Bird nests are variable in design but all are constructed for the purpose of incubation. The potentially onerous energetic costs of incubation have meant that previous studies have focussed on thermal insulation but nests are often exposed to a variety of environmental factors, including rainfall. Those few studies that have investigated the effects of water on nests have saturated the walls by soaking but this may not reflect what a nest would typically encounter in situ during rainfall. Here, nests of four species of songbird (Common Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs, Common Linnets Linaria cannabina, Meadow Pipits Anthus pratensis, and Whinchats Saxicola rubetra) were investigated using temperature loggers to determine the effect of simulated rainfall on nest wall insulation. Simulated rainfall, produced by water dripping through a coffee percolator, significantly reduced the insulatory values of nests, and significantly increased the rate of cooling of temperature loggers inside the nest cup. No significant effect of species, or nest mass, was observed. Even when wet nest walls provided some insulation but whether this is attributable to the nest materials chosen by each species was not clear. The nest site chosen by the birds may also offer considerable protection from the weather. Further research is needed to better understand how rainfall affects the insulative properties of nests in situ.