Maze Scores Research Articles

In Vitro and in vivo characterization of nasal pH-Responsive in-situ hydrogel of Candesartan-loaded invasomes as a potential stroke treatment.

Candesartan (CDN) is a useful anti-stroke medication because it lowers blood pressure, inflammation, oxidative stress, angiogenesis and apoptosis. However, CDN has limited efficacy due to its low solubility and poor bioavailability. This study set out to develop nasal pH-responsive in situ hydrogel of CDN-loaded invasomes a (PRHCLI) for enhancing CDN's release, penetration, bioavailability, and effectiveness as a possible treatment for stroke. Based on the results of the pre-formulation investigation, the optimum CLI formulation for intravasomal delivery of CDN was determined to be 3% of phospholipid, 0.16% of cholesterol, 3% of ethanol, and 1% of cineole. The optimum formulation significantly enhanced CDN permeation and release by 2.06-fold and 59.06%, respectively. The CLI formulation was added to a mixture of chitosan (0.67%w/v) and glyceryl monooleate (0.27%v/v) to develop PRHCLI. The PRHCLI formulation enhanced the release and permeation of CDN relative to free CDN by 2.15 and 2.76 folds, respectively. An experimental rat stroke model was utilized for in vivo studies to evaluate the bioavailability, effectiveness, and toxicity of the PRHCLI formulation. The nasal PRHCLI drops increased the CDN's bioavailability by 3.20-fold compared to oral free CDN. Increased grip strength and decreased flexion, spontaneous motor activity, and Morris Water Maze scores in comparison to oral free CDN showed that nasal PRHCLI drops have better anti-stroke activity. The toxicity evaluation revealed the safety of nasal PRHCLI. Hence, nasal PRHCLI drops may represent a promising avenue as a stroke therapy.

Body weight modulates the impact of oxytocin on chronic cold-immobilization stress response

By activating the stress system, stress modulates various physiological parameters including food intake, energy consumption, and, consequently, body weight. The role of oxytocin in the regulation of stress and obesity cannot be disregarded. Based on these findings, we aimed to investigate the effect of intranasal oxytocin on stress response in high-fat-diet (HFD)--fed and control-diet-fed rats exposed to chronic stress. Cold-immobilization stress was applied for 5 consecutive days to male Sprague-Dawley rats fed either with a control diet (n=20) or HFD (n=20) for 6 weeks. Half of the animals in each group received oxytocin. Stress response was evaluated via plasma and salivary cortisol levels as well as elevated plus maze scores. Prefrontal cortex and hypothalamic oxytocin receptor (OxtR) expression levels were identified using western blot analysis. The results showed higher stress response in HFD-fed animals than in control animals both under basal and post-stress conditions. Oxytocin application had a prominent anxiolytic effect in the control group but an insignificant effect in the HFD group. While OxtR expression levels in the prefrontal cortex did not vary according to the body weight and oxytocin application, OxtR levels in the hypothalamus were higher in the HFD- and/or oxytocin-treated animals. Our results indicated that the peripheral and central effects of oxytocin vary with body weight. Moreover, obesity masks the anxiolytic effects of oxytocin, probably by reinforcing the stress condition via central OxtRs. In conclusion, elucidating the mechanisms underlying the central effect of oxytocin is important to cope with stress and obesity.

Classroom effects are as large as grade‐level effects on curriculum‐based measurement maze reading scores of secondary school students with and without special educational needs

BackgroundPrevious studies used curriculum‐based measurement (CBM) maze scores as an indicator of the reading comprehension level of secondary school students with and without special educational needs in multiple grades, pinpointing a high influence of both student‐ and context‐related variables. However, studies on cumulative influence are necessary for better understanding of data‐based decision‐making.MethodsWe examined a sample of 1066 secondary school students using four linear mixed‐effect models: How much variance in maze scores exists between multiple student characteristics (i.e., gender, immigration background, learning disability and developmental language disorder) and context variables (i.e., classroom, grade and school type) across Grades 5–8?ResultsThe intra‐class correlation (ICC) results show that the influence by the context‐related variable classroom (ICC = .094) is almost as large as by the variable grade level (ICC = .126). School type (i.e., inclusive school vs. special school) has the least influence (ICC = .02). In addition, the effects of student‐related variables explain only a small proportion of the variance (marginal R2 = .114).ConclusionsMaze scores can be used as a screening instrument for students with multiple characteristics across grades; they also show that it makes no difference which type of school students attend. As teachers and further classroom‐related variables have almost as much influence as grade level, we discuss that teachers can minimise classroom effects by using maze scores as a formative approach.

SMALL SCALE MEASUREMENT IN SOCIAL STUDIES

This small-scale study investigated the use of a Concept Maze as an extension of Curriculum-based Measurement (CBM) to monitor the progress of student learning in a social studies classroom. Fifty 6th grade students participated in a three week conceptually based unit on Early Societies. All students were assessed with vocabulary CBMs and Concept Mazes on three separate occasions, at the end of each week. Results indicated that the vocabulary measures were neither related to the Concept Maze scores nor predictive of achievement on a criterion measure. Concept Mazes, however, were predictive of performance on the end of unit test. Mean growth patterns indicated that Concept Mazes were sensitive enough to monitor the learning progress of students with and without learning disabilities.

The impact of oxytocin on thiol/disulphide and malonyldialdehyde/glutathione homeostasis in stressed rats.

We aimed to investigate the impact of oxytocin on serum thiol/disulphide and malonylyldialdehyde (MDA)/glutathione balance under acute stress (AS) and chronic stress (CS) exposure in rats. Animals were allocated into control (C), AS and CS groups, then the groups subdivided as intranasal oxytocin or saline applied groups, randomly. Animals in the AS or CS groups were exposed to combined cold-immobilisation stress. Salivary corticosterone levels and elevated plus maze (EPM) scores were used to assess stress response. MDA, glutathione, thiol-disulphide levels were measured in the serum samples. Oxytocin treatment attenuated stress response regardless of the stress duration verified by lower corticosterone level and favorable profile in EPM parameters measured. Furthermore, oxytocin modulated oxidant profile suggesting lowered oxidant stress with decreased serum MDA/glutathione and disulfide/native thiol ratios. Oxytocin improves the response of organism to stress via both its anxiolytic and antioxidant effects. That's why it can be considered as a protective measure to employ methods to increase endogenous oxytocin and/or to apply exogenous oxytocin to prevent stress-induced increase in oxidant stress, which plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of various stress-related diseases.

Effects of quetiapine on behavioral changes and expression of myelin proteins in a chronic alcohol dependence rat model

BackgroundAs an atypical antipsychotic drug, quetiapine had been approved for bipolar disorder and for adjunctive therapy in major depressive disorder and schizophrenia. Recently quetiapine has been suggested to be a promising pharmacotherapy for alcohol dependence. This study was performed to determine the effects of quetiapine in rats chronically exposed to ethanol. MethodsRats were exposed to ethanol solution (10 %; v/v) for 6 weeks. Saline or one of three doses of quetiapine (10, 20 or 40 mg/kg/day) was given by oral gavage while ethanol exposure for the next 14 weeks. Performance of learning and memory and withdrawal signs were evaluated. Then immunohistochemistry, western blot, quantitative real-time-PCR and transmission electron microscopy were performed to determine the effects of quetiapine on alterations of brain white matter markers (myelin basic protein, MBP; proteolipid protein, PLP) and morphology caused by chronic ethanol exposure. ResultsQuetiapine treatment significantly alleviated withdrawal signs in the ethanol exposed rats. Chronic ethanol exposure reduced Y-type electric maze scores and the protein/mRNA expression levels of MBP and PLP in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, and these effects were reversed by quetiapine treatment. Similar ultrastructure morphological changes were observed. ConclusionsChronic quetiapine treatment alleviated the damage induced by chronic ethanol exposure with regard to learning and memory ability and to brain white matter. Thus, quetiapine appears to be a potentially promising pharmacotherapy for the treatment of alcohol use disorder.

Brain gray matter volume alterations and cognitive function in first-episode childhood-and adolescence-onset schizophrenia

Objective: To investigate the abnormal changes of gray matter volume and its relationship with cognitive function in first-episode childhood- and adolescence-onset schizophrenia. Methods: A total of 39 (aged 10-16 years) first-episode childhood- and adolescence-onset schizophrenia (patient group) were recruited from the inpatient departments of Second Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University between 2014 and 2016, meanwhile, 30 age-, sex- and education years-matched healthy children and adolescents (control group) were also enrolled. All the subjects underwent 3.0 T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan. The volume of gray matter in two groups was compared by voxel based morphometric method (VBM). MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB) and the Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT) were employed to evaluate the cognitive function of the two groups, and the relationship between the abnormal gray matter region and the cognitive function in the two group was analyzed. Results: Compared with the control group, brain gray matter volume in the right insula, left inferior frontal gyrus, the left limbic edge were significantly decreased (t=-5.303, -5.302, and -6.211; all P<0.05). Trail making test scores in the patient group were higher than those of the control group (t=3.22, P<0.01). However, scores of symbol coding, HVLT-R, BVMT-R, word fluency, digital span, maze test, word, color and color word were lower than those of the control group (t=-6.41, -5.42, -7.77, -5.59, -8.78, -6.99, -6.98, -6.47 and 4.84, all P<0.01). Pearson correlation analysis showed that the right insula was positively correlated with the BVMT-R and maze test scores, and the left inferior frontal gyrus was positively correlated with the maze scores in the patient group (r=0.32, 0.50 and 0.45, all P<0.05). The left inferior frontal gyrus was positively correlated with the digital span in control group (r=0.46, P<0.05). Conclusion: The first-episode childhood-and adolescence-onset schizophrenia exhibits abnormal changes of gray matter volume and cognitive function, and the pathophysiological mechanisms of a wide range of cognitive impairments may be related to abnormal volume changes of gray matter.

Using Curriculum-Based Measurement to Predict Student Performance on an Eighth-Grade State Reading Assessment

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between scores on two common curriculum-based measures (CBMs), oral reading fluency (ORF) and maze, and scores on the previous statewide assessment of reading in Oregon (Oregon Assessment of Knowledge and Skills-Reading/Literature [OAKS-R]). Data obtained from three cohorts of eighth-grade students were used to examine CBM validity, and the relationship between student characteristics and OAKS-R performance. Positive relationships between ORF and maze scores and performance on the OAKS-R were obtained. In addition, the strength of the predictive relationships varied across cohorts, but not as a function of student characteristics. These results suggest that eighth-grade CBM data can be used as an efficient means to identify and intervene with those at risk of performing poorly on the end-of-year, high stakes accountability assessment. Consideration of the tradeoffs associated with using one or more CBMs in middle school is provided.

Dysfunction of Nrf2-ARE Signaling Pathway: Potential Pathogenesis in the Development of Neurocognitive Impairment in Patients with Moderate to Severe Obstructive Sleep Apnea-Hypopnea Syndrome.

The present study investigated the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2- (Nrf2-) antioxidant response element (ARE) signaling pathway in patients with moderate to severe obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS). Their correlation with neurocognitive impairment metrics was investigated to explore potential pathogenesis in OSAHS. Forty-eight patients with OSAHS and 28 controls underwent testing with the Epworth Sleep Scale (ESS), MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB), Stroop Color and Word Test, polysomnography (PSG), and measurements of the concentration of plasma superoxide dismutase (SOD) and thioredoxin (Trx). Further, 20 pairs of matched patients with OSAHS and controls were selected for measurement of the expression (protein and mRNA) of Nrf2 and of its downstream antioxidase, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), in peripheral mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Finally, correlations between neurocognitive impairment and the above metrics were analyzed. Expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 mRNA and protein in the PBMCs, as well as plasma SOD and Trx levels, were significantly reduced in patients with OSAHS. After adjusting for education, sex, age, and smoking index, the expression of Nrf2-ARE signaling pathway proteins (or mRNA) was closely correlated with sleep respiratory parameters. An inverse relationship was demonstrated between the expression of nuclear Nrf2 in PBMCs, concentration of plasma SOD and Trx, and apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) in patients with OSAHS. Trx, nuclear Nrf2 protein, and HO-1 protein were also negatively correlated with the percent of time that SaO2 was less than 90% (TSat90). Total Nrf2 protein level was positively correlated with AHI and TSat90 and negatively correlated with minimum SaO2 (LSaO2), while nuclear Nrf2 protein and HO-1 protein were positively correlated with LSaO2. Moreover, significant positive correlations were found between maze scores and expression of nuclear Nrf2 protein, HO-1 protein, and SOD and Trx levels. Furthermore, inverse relationships between total Nrf2 protein in PBMCs and HVLT-R and maze scores were found. Multiple linear regression showed plasma Trx concentration as a potential predictor of maze and BVMT-R scores. In conclusion, the expression of Nrf2-ARE molecules and related antioxidases is significantly decreased in patients with OSAHS and is correlated with neurocognitive dysfunction. The Nrf2-ARE signaling pathway may play a crucial role in neurocognitive impairment in patients with moderate to severe OSAHS. Further studies are needed to explore the exact mechanisms and potential treatment interventions.

CBM maze-scores as indicators of reading level and growth for seventh-grade students

The technical adequacy of CBM maze-scores as indicators of reading level and growth for seventh-grade secondary-school students was examined. Participants were 452 Dutch students who completed weekly maze measures over a period of 23 weeks. Criterion measures were school level, dyslexia status, scores and growth on a standardized reading test. Results supported the technical adequacy of maze scores as indicators of reading level and growth. Alternate-form reliability coefficients were significant and intermediate to high. Mean maze scores showed significant increase over time, students’ growth trajectories differed, and students’ initial performance levels (intercepts) and growth rates (slopes) were not correlated. Maze reading level and growth were related to reading level and/or growth on criterion measures. A nonlinear model provided a better fit for the data than a linear model. Implications for use of CBM maze-scores for data-based decision-making are discussed.

Aspartame and the hippocampus: Revealing a bi-directional, dose/time-dependent behavioural and morphological shift in mice

Changes, in behaviour, oxidative markers of stress and hippocampal morphology were evaluated following aspartame administration. Mice, (20–22g each) were given vehicle (10ml/kg) or aspartame (20, 40, 80 and 160mg/kg) daily for 28days. They were tested in the Y-maze, radial-arm maze and elevated plus-maze (EPM) after the first and last dose of vehicle or aspartame; and then sacrificed. Hippocampal slices were analysed for aspartic acid, nitric oxide (NO) and superoxide dismutase (SOD); and processed for general histology and neuritic plaques. Glial fibrillary-acid protein (GFAP) expression and neuron-specific enolase (NSE) activities were determined. Radial-arm maze scores increased significantly after acute administration at 80 and 160mg/kg. Repeated administration at 20 and 40mg/kg (Y-maze) and at 40mg/kg (radial-arm maze) was also associated with increased scores, however, performance decreased at higher doses. EPM tests revealed anxiogenic responses following both acute and repeated administration. Significant increase in SOD and NO activities were observed at 40, 80 and 160mg/kg. Neuron counts reduced at higher doses of aspartame. At 40, 80 and 160mg/kg, fewer GFAP-reactive astrocytes were observed in the cornus ammonis, but increased GFAP-reactivity was observed in the dentate gyrus subgranular zone. NSE-positive neurons were readily identifiable within the dentate gyrus at the lower doses of aspartame; but at 160mg/kg, there was marked neuron loss and reduction in NSE-positive neurons. Oral aspartame significantly altered behaviour, anti-oxidant status and morphology of the hippocampus in mice; also, it may probably trigger hippocampal adult neurogenesis.

Getting More From Your Maze: Examining Differences in Distractors

ABSTRACTThe present study examined the technical adequacy of maze-selection tasks constructed in 2 different ways: typical versus novel. We selected distractors for each measure systematically based on rules related to the content of the passage and the part of speech of the correct choice. Participants included 262 middle school students who were randomly assigned to 1 of the 2 maze formats. Scoring of the maze included both correct and correct-minus-incorrect scores. Students completed 3 criterion-reading tests: the Scholastic Reading Inventory, the AIMSweb R-Maze, and a high-stakes state assessment (the Missouri Assessment Program). Alternate-forms reliability was similar across maze formats; however, with regard to scoring procedure, reliability coefficients were consistently higher for correct than for correct-minus-incorrect scores. Validity coefficients were also similar across format with 1 exception: The coefficients for typical maze scores were stronger when compared with the Missouri Assessment Program scores than the coefficients for novel maze scores.

Effect of maternal deprivation on learning and memory ability and hippocampal nerve regeneration in rats with hypoxic-ischemic brain damage

Objective To observe the effect of maternal deprivation(MD) on learning and memory ability and hippocampal pathology and nestin expression in rats with hypoxic-ischemic brain damage (HIBD). Methods The models of HIBD SD male rats were established by the method of Rice, and were randomly divided into 2 groups: MD group and control group.In addition, the sham-operation group(sham group) models were established.The MD group rats were separated from their mother 3 hours per day from the second day after modeling to the 21st postnatal day.After 28 postnatal days, Morris water maze was used to evaluate the learning and memory ability of the rat models.HE staining was employed to observe the hippocampal pathological change in the rats.Then, the expression of nestin in the hippocampus was measured by the method of immunohistochemistry. Results Their body mass changes showed that quality of sham group was higher than that of the control and the MD groups, and quality was improved in the control group, compared with the MD group, and the differences were statistically significant(q=9.860 8, 3.880 7, 5.980 1, all P<0.05). The water maze scores of the MD group in place navigation test and spatial probe test were much lower than that of the control group and the sham group, and the scores of the sham group were higher than that of the control group, the differences were statistically significant(all P<0.05). The findings of HE stain showed that the pathology in the right-sided hippocampus of the sham group was normal and neurons were well-arranged, and that of control group was minimally abnormal, and the neurons were almost arranged orderly and remained normal.While, the pathomorphology of the MD group was obviously abnormal, the neurons were arranged disorderly, many of the neurons lost.According to the immunohistochemical findings, the number of nestin-positive cells in right-sided hippocampus of the MD group was significantly less than that of the control group, and the number of nestin-positive cells of the sham group was less than that of the MD group, which showed significant differences among the groups(all P<0.05). Conclusions MD aggravated injury to learning and memory ability of neonatal rats with HIBD, and decrease the number of nestin-positive cells of MD markedly, which is not good for the recovery of brain injury. Key words: Hypoxic-ischemic; Maternal deprivation; Learning and memory; Pathology; Nestin

Effects of enriched environment on neural and ethological prognosis and contents of myelin basic protein of neonatal rats with hypoxic-ischemic brain damage

Objective To explore the impacts of enriched environment(EE), which has different initiation time points and intensity, on the neural and ethological prognosis and contents of myelin basic protein(MBP) of neonatal rats with hypoxic-ischemic brain damage (HIBD). Methods HIBD rat models were established. Rats were divided into the early, the intermediate and the late intervention groups, which experienced EE from 7, 14 and 21 days after HIBD for 14 days. The early and intermediate intervention groups were then divided into 6-h and 24-h groups, which experienced EE intervention for 6 hours or 24 hours respectively each day. Trapeze tests and water maze tests were carried out to detect the neural and ethological prognosis. Immunohistochemical method was used to detect MBP of the brain white matter, and the percentages of positive cells with MBP were detected by an image analyzer. The contents of MBP were measured. Results The trapeze test scores of the early and intermediate sham operation group, HI group, early 6-h and 24-h EE groups and the intermediate 6-h and 24-h EE groups, the late sham operation group, the late HI and late EE intervention group were (4.05±0.88) scores, (2.35±1.02) scores, (3.67±1.12) scores, (3.50±1.41) scores, (3.50±0.93) scores, (3.56±1.13) scores, (4.00±0.89) scores, (2.17±1.17) scores, (3.50±0.92) scores, respectively. The trapeze test scores of early, intermediate and late EE groups were higher than those of the HI groups in the same period. There was no significant difference between the early, the intermediate 6-h EE groups and 24-h EE groups. Scores of water maze of each corresponding group were (40.68±23.77) seconds, (56.66±10.96) seconds, (46.49±19.27) seconds, (51.72±20.46) seconds, (38.20±18.36) seconds, (47.96±20.65) seconds, (38.63±20.44) seconds, (59.66±13.81) seconds and (45.93±22.45) seconds, respectively. The water maze scores of the early, the intermediate 6-h EE group and the late 24-h EE groups were higher than those of the HI groups in the same period. There was no significant difference between the early, the intermediate 6- h EE groups and the 24-h EE groups. The relative abundance of MBP of the early and intermediate and the late HI groups were 6.32±1.63 and 6.74±2.19, and significantly less than that of the sham groups in the same periods, which were 9.09±1.69 and 9.37±2.46. The relative abundance of MBP of early 6-h and 24-h groups, the intermediate 6-h and 24-h groups and the late EE group was 7.84±2.51, 8.05±1.86, 8.89±2.29, 8.48±2.67 and 7.98±2.09, respectively, which was significantly higher than that of the HI groups in the same periods. It showed that the neural and ethological prognosis of neonatal rats with HIBD could be improved, no matter the intervention began in the early, the intermediate or the late periods, or the intervention time was 6 hours or 24 hours each day. And relative abundance of MBP in the white matter increased with EE. Conclusions EE intervention has a long window stage for young rats. EE intervention could improve the neural and ethological prognosis of rats with HIBD. EE intervention could elevate the contents of MBP in the white matter, which could be one of the mechanisms for EE to improve the neural and ethological prognosis of rats with HIBD. Key words: Cerebral hypoxia; Cerebral ischemia; Enriched environment; Myelin basic protein; Infant, newborn

Interrater Reliability and Developmental Norms in Preschoolers for the Motor Planning Maze Assessment (MPMA).

This study established interrater reliability and preliminary developmental score guidelines for preschool children (ages 3-5 yr) on the Motor Planning Maze Assessment (MPMA). We administered the MPMA to 80 typically developing preschoolers and found age effects for Time, Error, and Total scores for each of three mazes. Five-year-olds obtained lower (better) scores than 4-yr-olds, who scored lower than 3-yr-olds. Older children completed the mazes with significantly fewer errors in significantly less time than younger children. Interrater reliability was excellent on the total MPMA score (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.96) and individual maze scores (0.90-0.98). Results of this study provide evidence that the MPMA can serve as a reliable, objective screening of a preschooler's ability to plan and execute motor movements. A larger reference population is needed to increase generalizability.

CBM Progress Monitoring in Foreign Language Learning for Secondary School Students

The reliability and validity of three curriculum-based measures as indicators of learning English as a foreign language were examined. Participants were 260 Dutch students in Grades 8 and 9 who were receiving English-language instruction. Predictor measures were maze-selection, Dutch-to-English word translation, and English-to-Dutch word translation. Criterion variables were years of English instruction, school level, course grades, and scores on a standardized reading test. Different scoring procedures and time frames were compared. Alternate-form reliabilities ranged from .44 to .88. Significant differences in maze scores were found between school levels but not between years of English-language instruction. Correlations between predictor and criterion variables ranged from .19 to .79. A regression analysis revealed that a combination of maze and English-to-Dutch translation predicted English course grades better than a single measure alone.

The Effects of Using Different Procedures to Score Maze Measures

The purpose of this study was to examine how different scoring procedures affect interpretation of maze curriculum‐based measurements. Fall and spring data were collected from 199 students receiving supplemental reading instruction. Maze probes were scored first by counting all correct maze choices, followed by four scoring variations designed to reduce the effect of random guessing. Pearson's r correlation coefficients were calculated among scoring procedures and between maze scores and a standardized measure of reading. In addition, t tests were conducted to compare fall to spring growth for each scoring procedure. Results indicated that scores derived from the different procedures are highly correlated, demonstrate criterion‐related validity, and show fall‐to‐spring growth. Educators working with struggling readers may use any of the five scoring procedures to obtain technically sound scores.

Mouse behavioral tasks relevant to autism: Phenotypes of 10 inbred strains

Three defining clinical symptoms of autism are aberrant reciprocal social interactions, deficits in social communication, and repetitive behaviors, including motor stereotypies and insistence on sameness. We developed a set of behavioral tasks designed to model components of these core symptoms in mice. Male mice from 10 inbred strains were characterized in assays for sociability, preference for social novelty, and reversal of the spatial location of the reinforcer in T-maze and Morris water maze tasks. Six strains, C57BL/6J, C57L/J, DBA/2J, FVB/NJ, C3H/HeJ, and AKR/J, showed significant levels of sociability, while A/J, BALB/cByJ, BTBR T + tf/J, and 129S1/SvImJ mice did not. C57BL/6J, C57L/J, DBA/2J, FVB/NJ, BALB/cByJ, and BTBR T + tf/J showed significant preference for social novelty, while C3H/HeJ, AKR/J, A/J, and 129S1/SvImJ did not. Normal scores on relevant control measures confirmed general health and physical abilities in all strains, ruling out artifactual explanations for social deficits. Elevated plus maze scores confirmed high anxiety-like behaviors in A/J, BALB/cByJ, and 129S1/SvImJ, which could underlie components of their low social approach. Strains that showed high levels of performance on acquisition of a T-maze task were also able to reach criterion for reversal learning. On the Morris water maze task, DBA/2J, AKR/J, BTBR T + tf/J, and 129S1/SvImJ failed to show significant quadrant preference during the reversal probe trial. These results highlight a dissociation between social task performance and reversal learning. BTBR T + tf/J is a particularly interesting strain, displaying both low social approach and resistance to change in routine on the water maze, consistent with an autism-like phenotype. Our multitask strategy for modeling symptoms of autism will be useful for investigating targeted and random gene mutations, QTLs, and microarray analyses.

Neuropsychological correlates of hippocampal and rhinal cortex volumes in patients with mesial temporal sclerosis.

Considerable progress has been made toward understanding the function of the primate rhinal cortex, comprising the entorhinal (ErC) and perirhinal (PrC) cortices. However, translating animal models to human memory has been limited by the technological problems associated with characterizing neural structures in vivo. Functional correlates of hippocampal and rhinal cortex volume changes were examined in a sample of 61 temporal lobe epilepsy patients with mesial temporal sclerosis (MTS; 33 left, 28 right). Patients were administered the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (revised or third edition), the Wechsler Memory Scale (revised or third edition), and a spatial maze task. Neuropsychological data, together with rhinal cortex and hippocampal volumes, collected in our earlier study (O'Brien CE, Bowden SC, Whelan G, Cook MJ, unpublished observations), were analyzed using multiple regression. The only significant predictor of verbal memory function was the difference score between the volume of left hippocampus and the left PrC. Spatial maze scores were predicted by the bilateral sum of ErC volume. The difference score between the left hippocampus and left PrC volumes was the most powerful predictor of verbal episodic memory. Right hippocampal volume was not a significant predictor of nonverbal episodic memory. Verbal and nonverbal semantic memory were not significantly predicted by any combination of rhinal cortex structures. This quantitative study suggests a lateralized or material-specific memory function for the left hippocampus and left PrC, in contrast to the bilateral role of the ErC. The left hippocampus and left PrC appear to act on verbal memory function through an opposing relationship. Finally, differentiation between hippocampal and subhippocampal components in terms of episodic and semantic memory, respectively, could not be supported by the current data.

Technical Adequacy of the Maze Task for Curriculum-Based Measurement of Reading Growth

The purpose of the present study was to examine the technical adequacy of curriculum-based measurement (CBM) for assessing student growth over time. Participants were 43 second graders whose reading performance was measured monthly over 1 school year with the maze task. Technical characteristics of the CBM maze task were examined in terms of reliability, sensitivity, and validity for assessing student growth. Results showed that the maze task had good alternate-form reliability, with a mean coefficient of .81 and 1- to 3-month intervals between testing. The maze task also sensitively reflected improvement of student performance over a school year and revealed interindividual differences in growth rates. Finally, growth rates estimated on repeated maze scores were positively related to later reading performance on a standardized reading test; in addition, although a significant difference was not found, general education students appeared to develop reading proficiency faster than remedial education students. Results support the use of the maze task as a reliable, sensitive, and valid data collection procedure for assessing reading growth.