Maximum Water Content Research Articles

Potential coconut (Cocos nucifera) hybrids for yield and quality for coastal region of Andhra Pradesh (India)

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is a perennial plantation crop which has a very long productive period thus identification of suitable hybrid to a particular agro-climatic region play an important role in achieving higher and sustained yields. In this context, an evaluation trial with different coconut cross combinations involving ECT × MGD (VHC 1), GBGD × ECT (Konkan Bhatye Coconut hybrid-1), GBGD × FJT (Kalpa Ganga), GBGD × PHOT, GBGD × LCOT and ECT × GBGD (Godavari Ganga) was conducted at All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Palms, Ambajipeta center for a period of two and half decades.The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with four replications maintaining six palms per replication. With regard to growth characters,the cross combination GBGD × FJT recorded significantly the lowest plant height (7.4 m) while the maximum palm girth of 123.8cm was recorded with VHC 1.Observations on yield and yield attributing traits (average of 6 years) revealed the superior performance of GBGD × PHOT and GBGD × LCOT hybrids over the existing hybrid check (ECT × GBGD) by recording higher nut yield, copra output and oil yield. Significantly higher nut yield per palm was recorded in GBGD × LCOT(135.8 nuts) and it was on par with GBGD × PHOT (125.4 nuts). Copra content per annum and estimated oil yield was the highest in GBGD × PHOT (23.7 kg/palm and 16.2 kg/palm, respectively and it was on par with GBGD × LCOT (22.1kg/palm and 15.0 kg/palm respectively). GBGD × PHOT recorded significantly maximum tender nut water content (385.0 ml/ tender nut) and TSS of 6.20 Brix over other hybrids.

Ecology of desiccation tolerance in bryophytes: A conceptual framework and methodology

Bryophytes have long been understood to be desiccation tolerant (capable of reviving from an air-dry state, DT). While mechanistic studies focusing on the expression of this complex trait are numerous over the last 50 years, a firm conceptual framework for the ecology of desiccation tolerance in bryophytes has lagged behind. As a result of this, mechanistic studies have gone ahead without an ecological foundation, and this path can be scientifically risky. The motivating elements for this article include (1) the low visibility and lack of implementation of a conceptual framework for studying the ecology of DT in bryophytes, (2) the lack of a protocol for the step-by-step handling of field-collected or laboratory cultured specimens for study of desiccation tolerance with particular attention to the deacclimation of plants, (3) a recognition that most studies of desiccation tolerance tend to conflate two of the most important factors of desiccation, rate of desiccation and water content, and (4) recognizing that the ecological factors of rehydration, aside from recovery, are nearly always ignored in experiments on desiccation tolerance in bryophytes. Therefore this review postulates a conceptual framework for the ecology of desiccation tolerance, presenting the principal factors of desiccation (rate of drying, water content at equilibration, duration dry, and rate of rehydration) and how they may interact, presenting the principal physiological phases of rehydration (recovery, hardening, dehardening), and highlighting the importance of specimen handling in preparation for an experiment on DT. Useful metrics for assessment are derived that include the minimum rate of drying tolerated at a given water content, the minimum or maximum water content tolerated, the maximum duration dry tolerated, and the minimum dehardening time exhibited.

A binary mixing model for characterizing stony-soil water retention

A century of research focused primarily on agricultural soils has largely ignored stony soils, which dominate some forests and are poorly understood in terms of the stone influence on soil hydraulic properties. Motivated by this knowledge gap, we quantified the influence of soil-containing stone fragments on bulk soil hydraulic properties by determining the water retention curve (WRC) of soil, stone and stone-soil mixtures with varied volumetric stone content. The measured WRC for seven different stone types based on their composition showed maximum and minimum saturated water contents of 0.55m3m−3 in pumice and 0.025m3m−3 in fine sandstone, respectively. The stony soil water retention function was measured using the simplified evaporation method. Contrasting scenarios were studied considering a broad range of stone inclusions; (i) negligibly porous, (ii) significantly porous but less porous than the background soil, (iii) more porous than the background soil. An averaging scheme to describe the WRC of stony soil was proposed based on the individual WRC of the background and stone inclusion which was in good agreement with the experimental data. The HYDRUS-3D model was also employed to simulate the evaporation experiment used for the WRC measurements. The model simulations supported the basic assumptions of the proposed averaging scheme.

Erratum to: Mitigation of Salt Stress Negative Effects on Sweet Pepper Using Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF), Bacillus megaterium and Brassinosteroids (BRs)

A study was conducted at the experimental farm of Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, during two successive summer seasons (2014 and 2015) to investigate the effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Glomus irradicans 10% w/w), Bacillus megaterium (10 ml/pot) and brassinosteroids (24-EBL, C28H48O6; 2 µM) on growth, nutrient absorption, chlorophyll, proline content, antioxidant enzymes activity and fruit yield of sweet pepper plants (Capsicum annuum L.) cv. Marconi. Plants were grown under three levels of salinity (0, 25 and 50 mM). The obtained results showed that plants grown under non-saline water (0 mM NaCl), with or without treatments, significantly gave the most vigorous vegetative growth and had the highest fruit yield compared with those grown under salt stress conditions. All anti-salinity treatments (Mycorrhiza, Bacillus and Brassinosteroids) improved growth when compared with untreated plants (control). Plants inoculated with mycorrhiza or treated with brassinosteroids showed better vegetative growth and shoot biomass (total fresh and dry weight per plant), chlorophyll a and b concentrations, antioxidant content expressed as total soluble phenols and proline concentrations at all studied salinity levels followed by plants inoculated with Bacillus megaterium compared with control plants which showed severe growth retardant especially under higher salt concentration (50 mM). Carotenoids concentration increased proportionally with the increase of salinity concentration. The maximum leaf relative water content (LRWC) and lowest values of membrane permeability (MP) were significantly observed with mychorhiza inoculated plants and brassinosteroid application respectively, followed by Bacillus inoculated plants. Antioxidant enzyme activity were highest in plants irrigated with moderate saline water (25 mM) than plants under high salinity irrigation water (50 mM) except polyphenol oxidase (PPO) as compared with unstressed plants (0 mM). Mycorrhizal inoculated plants accumulated higher K and lower Na and Cl followed by plants treated with brassinosteroids and then plants inoculated with Bacillus megaterium. Anti-salinity treatments positively enhanced fruit yield of sweet pepper plants under all salinity stress levels and the highest fruit yield were significantly observed with brassinosteroid application followed by mychorhiza inoculated plants and then Bacillus inoculated plants.

Water transport by subduction: Clues from garnet of Erzgebirge UHP eclogite

Abstract A key question concerning the water budget of Earth’s mantle is how much water is actually recycled into the mantle by the subduction of eclogitized oceanic crust. Hydrous phases are stable only in quartz eclogite not coesite eclogite so that water transport to greater depths is mainly governed by structural water in omphacite and garnet. Here we explore if garnet can be used as a proxy to assess the amount of this water. Available data on the water contents of garnet in coesite eclogite vary over orders of magnitude, from a few up to ca. 2000 ppm. By implication, the maximum bulk-rock water contents are unrealistically high (wt% level). New data from the Erzgebirge indicate moderate amounts of structural H2O stored in garnet (43–84 ppm), omphacite (400–820 ppm), and in the bulk coesite eclogite (ca. 280–460 ppm). Higher garnet water contents occur, but these are not primary features. They are related to molecular water in fluid inclusions that can be attributed to eclogite-facies fluid influx postdating the metamorphic peak. Fluid influx also caused the uptake of additional structural water in garnet domains close to fluid inclusions. Such secondary H2O incorporation is only possible in the case of primary water-deficiency indicating that garnet hosted less water than it was able to store. This is insofar astonishing as comparably high H2O amounts are liberated by the breakdown of prograde eclogite-facies hydrous minerals as a result of ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) metamorphism. Judging from Erzgebirge quartz eclogite, dehydration of 5–10% hydrous minerals (±equal portions of zoisite+calcic amphibole) produces 1500–3000 ppm water. We infer that the largest part of the liberated water escaped, probably due to kinetic reasons, and hydrated exhuming UHP slices in the hanging-wall. Depending on the physical conditions, water influx in eclogite during exhumation (1) produces fluid inclusions and simultaneously enhances the structural water content of nominally anhydrous minerals—as in the Erzgebirge—and/or (2) it may give rise to retrograde hydrous minerals. We conclude that eclogite transports moderate quantities of water (several hundred parts per million) to mantle depths beyond 100 km, an amount equivalent to that in ca. 1% calcic amphibole.

Milled Rice Quality Evaluation of Some Hope Strain Rice Field Rice (Oryza sativa L.)

The purpose of this study was to determine the quality of milled rice paddy rice several promising lines. The study was conducted in the village of Banjarrejo District of Batang, East Lampung Regency and Lampung State Polytechnic in November 2012 using a completely randomized design with 10 treatments and three replications. The treatment consisted of 10 new rice paddy promising lines 1. IPB 3S, 2. IPB 4S, 5R IPB 3., 4. IPB6R, 5. IPB117-F-7-2-1, 6. IPB 117-F-7-7 -1, 7. IPB 117-F-14-4-1, 8 IPB 117-F-15-4-1, 9. IPB 117-F-20-1-1, and 10. The IPB 117-F- 80-2-1. The results showed that the quality of milled rice paddy rice several promising lines tested have diversity in terms of: rendemen , milling degree, water content, grain heads, broken grains, brewers grains, grains of red, yellow grain, grain whitewash, and grains. Eight promising lines meet minimum standards milling degree, 10 strains meet the standard of a maximum water content, 2 lines meet minimum standards of grain heads, two lines meet minimum standards of broken grains, 9 strains meet the minimum standards of red grains, 7 strains meet minimum standards yolks, 1 strains meet minimum standards grains whitewash, 10 strains meet the minimum standards of foreign objects, and 6 lines meet minimum standards grains of milled rice quality requirements of quality I ISO 6128: 2008.Keywords: quality of milled rice, promising lines, paddy rice

Triple-component nanocomposite films prepared using a casting method: Its potential in drug delivery

The purpose of this study was to fabricate a triple-component nanocomposite system consisting of chitosan, polyethylene glycol (PEG), and drug for assessing the application of chitosan–PEG nanocomposites in drug delivery and also to assess the effect of different molecular weights of PEG on nanocomposite characteristics. The casting/solvent evaporation method was used to prepare chitosan–PEG nanocomposite films incorporating piroxicam-β-cyclodextrin. In order to characterize the morphology and structure of nanocomposites, X-ray diffraction technique, scanning electron microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and Fourier transmission infrared spectroscopy were used. Drug content uniformity test, swelling studies, water content, erosion studies, dissolution studies, and anti-inflammatory activity were also performed. The permeation studies across rat skin were also performed on nanocomposite films using Franz diffusion cell. The release behavior of films was found to be sensitive to pH and ionic strength of release medium. The maximum swelling ratio and water content was found in HCl buffer pH 1.2 as compared to acetate buffer of pH 4.5 and phosphate buffer pH 7.4. The release rate constants obtained from kinetic modeling and flux values of ex vivo permeation studies showed that release of piroxicam-β-cyclodextrin increased with an increase in concentration of PEG. The formulation F10 containing 75% concentration of PEG showed the highest swelling ratio (3.42±0.02) in HCl buffer pH 1.2, water content (47.89±1.53%) in HCl buffer pH 1.2, maximum cumulative drug permeation through rat skin (2405.15±10.97 μg/cm2) in phosphate buffer pH 7.4, and in vitro drug release (35.51±0.26%) in sequential pH change mediums, and showed a significantly (p<0.0001) higher anti-inflammatory effect (0.4 cm). It can be concluded from the results that film composition had a particular impact on drug release properties. The different molecular weights of PEG have a strong influence on swelling, drug release, and permeation rate. The developed films can act as successful drug delivery approach for localized drug delivery through the skin.

Geostatistical analysis of soil mechanical properties in Ardabil plain of Iran

ABSTRACTThis study was conducted to estimate the spatial distribution of penetration resistance (PR), Proctor maximum bulk density (MBD) and critical water content (CWC) as soil mechanical indices. Soil samples to determine sand, silt, clay, organic carbon (OC), CaCO3, bulk and particle density, total porosity, field water content, MBD and CWC values were collected. Field measurements of PR at 0–10 cm depth were taken from 105 geo-referenced points with 3000 × 3000 m intervals in agricultural lands of Ardabil plain, Iran. Ordinary kriging (OK) and inverse distance weighting (IDW) methods were used to analyze spatial variability of PR, MBD and CWC. The strongest spatial dependences with the lowest ranges of influence were found for OC (7560 m) and MBD (8370 m). The models of fitted semivariograms were Gaussian for PR and MBD, and exponential for CWC. The moderate spatial dependences with the ranges of 13,300 and 40,100 m were found for CWC and PR, respectively. The best prediction according to Lin’s concordance correlation coefficient was obtained by OK for PR (0.48) and IDW for MBD (0.09) and CWC (0.03). These results can be applied in programming of optimum tillage operations for reducing soil compaction risk in the studied region.

Effect of high density planting systems on physiological and biochemical status of rejuvenated mango plants of cv. Amrapali

Mango trees grown under high density planting systems show a gradual decline in yield after 11–12 years due to overcrowding of canopies. To find out the effect of high density planting systems on physio-biochemical parameters of mango, an experiment was conducted on an old senile, rejuvenated high density cv. Amrapali orchard over two consecutive years. High density planting systems showed significant effect on physiological, biochemical and nutritional parameters of plants. Among the different planting systems, plants under cluster planting system recorded the highest leaf area (156.68 cm2), transpiration rate (3.77 m mol−1 m−2s−1); and N (1.28%) P (0.20%) and K (0.54%) contents. The maximum leaf relative water content (87.63%) was noted in plants under square planting system, while, the photosynthetic rate (8.36 μmol CO2 m−2 s−1) was highest in hedge-row planting system. The stomatal conductance (0.17 μmol CO2 m−2 s−1) was the highest in plants under double-hedge row planting system. The highest internal carbon concentration was recorded in paired planting system, while the maximum chlorophyll ‘a’ (1.50 mg g−1), chlorophyll ‘b’ (0.65 mg mg g−1) and total chlorophyll (2.02 mg g−1) contents were found in plants under square planting system. The highest total phenolics (53.09 mg g−1) content was recorded under paired planting system. The micronutrient contents in plants, viz. Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn also differed among different planting systems.

Water generation and transport below Europa's strike-slip faults

Jupiter's moon Europa has a very young surface with the abundance of unique terrains that indicate recent endogenic activity. Morphological models as well as spectral observations suggest that it might possess shallow lenses of liquid water within its outer ice shell. Here we investigate the generation and possible accumulation of liquid water below the tidally activated strike-slip faults using a numerical model of two-phase ice-water mixture in two-dimensional Cartesian geometry. Our results suggest that generation of shallow partially molten regions underneath Europa's active strike-slip faults is possible, but their lifetime is constrained by the formation of Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities due to the negative buoyancy of the melt. Once formed, typically within a few million years, these instabilities efficiently transport the meltwater through the shell. Consequently, the maximum water content in the partially molten regions never exceeds 10% which challenges their possible detection by future exploration mission.

Synthesis and characterisation of lignin-like oligomers as a bio-inspired consolidant for waterlogged archaeological wood

Abstract The development of new materials for the consolidation of waterlogged archaeological wood from sustainable sources is an important area of research, as the most widely used consolidant today is petroleum based. Ideally a new consolidant will interact with the existing wood structure, ensuring maximum compatibility. Lignin is often the major component remaining in archaeological wood, as it is less susceptible to degradation than holocellulose. Therefore, in order to maximise the potential for interaction with the wood cells, lignin-like oligomers have been synthesized from isoeugenol using a water soluble copper salen catalyst at pH 10, giving a weight average Mw of 1.6 kDa. Analysis by NMR spectroscopy has shown that the oligomers have a lignin-like structure with β-O-4′, β-β′ and β-5′ connections. A 10 w/w% solution of the oligomers in ethyl acetate was found to thoroughly penetrate 1 cm3 samples of waterlogged archaeological wood (density of 0.146 g/mL, maximum water content of 620%) after 14 days impregnation, as determined by FTIR spectroscopy. No impregnation material could be seen by SEM, suggesting that it coats the cell walls upon drying. This indicates that dehydrogenated polymers penetrate waterlogged archaeological wood well and have the potential to be developed into consolidants.

Interannual variations in the hydrothermal regime around a thermokarst lake in Beiluhe, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

Thermokarst is a term associated with the thaw of ice-rich permafrost and the resulting formation of irregular depressions in the landscape from thaw settlement. Thermokarst lakes may subsequently develop from ponds formed in depressions. These lakes commonly have collapsing shorelines, and the development of thermokarst terrain and associated thermal erosion may significantly influence the stability of infrastructure and the hydrothermal conditions of the surrounding permafrost. In this study, we examined interannual variations in the hydrothermal regime of a thermokarst lake in Beiluhe Basin based on field data measured in 2006–2013. The timing and nature of lake ice growth and melt were recorded. We observed considerable seasonal differences in lake water level (~0.5m) and differences in water level between the lake and the water table in the surrounding ground (over 1.0m). The nearly-saturated ground at the lakeshore (~35% in maximum volumetric water content) highlights the seepage effect from the lake to the surrounding ground. The vertical temperature profile from +2m (air) to −2m (lake bottom) and to 60m depth in the ground was measured. The annual mean air temperature, lake-surface temperature, and annual mean lake-bottom temperature in 2010–2011 were approximately −3.6, 0.4, and >5°C, respectively. The thermal offsets between the air and the lake surface and between the lake surface and lake bottom were 3 and 7°C, respectively. The annual mean lake-bottom temperatures ranged from 2.3 to 6.9°C at water depths from 1.2 to 2.1m. The asymmetry of the bathymetry has resulted in distinct thermal regimes beneath the lake bottom in different locations. A through-talik was present at the deepest side of the lake, but some permafrost extended laterally beneath the lake bottom at the shallower side, forming an hourglass shape in cross section at one end. Lateral thermal erosion along the lakeshore was linked to the lake-bottom temperature and lake depth. Variation in permafrost table depth from the lake center to the lakeshore was greater on the east side near deeper water (≥2m) than at the west side where water was shallower (≤70cm). The results from this study have highlighted the hydrothermal relations between thermokarst lake development and permafrost conditions.

The water holding ability of powder masses: Characterization and influence on the preparation of pellets via extrusion/spheronization

The water holding ability of powder masses greatly influences their extrusion/spheronization performance during pellets preparation. To quantify this ability and explore its influence on pellets preparation, two characterized parameters were proposed. One was the maximum water content that could be retained by the mass (WHAmax), the other was the remaining water content in the mass subjected to certain extrusion force (WHAextrusion). The methods to determine WHA were established by centrifugation. MCC, κ-carrageenan, mannitol were employed to investigate the relationship between WHA and their extrusion/spheronization performance. The results showed that the WHAmax and WHAextrusion of MCC were 1.0g/g and 0.85g/g, which were less than that of κ-carrageenan (WHAmax>6.0g/g, WHAextrusion=3.0g/g), accordingly. Since mannitol had the lowest parameter values (WHAmax=0.3g/g, WHAextrusion=0.25g/g), it was hard to be extruded. Therefore, κ-carrageenan (≥10%) or mannitol (≥30%) were added to prepare satisfactory pellets by increasing the WHA values (≥0.53g/g) of the mixed masses. In addition, the WHA of mixed masses could be predicted based on WHA of each mass. To obtain enough extrudates and non-agglomerated pellets, the water content added in the mass should be equal with WHAmax. In conclusion, the established two parameters were useful to predict the extrusion/spheronization performance of masses, therefore, selecting the potential pelletization aids and determining the optimal water content.

PEMANFAATAN SAMPAH PLASTIK MENJADI BRIKET SEBAGAI BAHAN BAKAR ALTERNATIF DALAM KILN DI PABRIK PT SEMEN PADANG

Coal is a natural resource that can not be updated and will be depleted when used continuously. PT Semen Padang is a cement industries that use coal as fuel in large quantities which can increase production costs. It should be considered for alternative materials that can be used as fuel. The example is plastic waste that has tremendous potential as an alternative fuel. For that conducted research on the make of plastic waste into briquettes with technology Plastic Waste as alternative fuel to substitute for coal in the kiln PT Semen Padang from two types of plastic waste, is garbage plastic bags (PP) and a glass of mineral water plastic waste (PET). This study aims to determine the quality of briquettes, to obtain a picture of whether plastic pellets briquettes can be used as a substitute for coal and a comparison of the use of coal briquettes plastic pellets in the kiln PT Semen Padang. From the test, it is known that the briquettes garbage plastic bags have a calorific value of 10.112 cal/gram, ash content of 3,90%, 0,36% moisture and volatile content of 94,74%. And briquettes from waste plastic glasses of mineral water has a calorific value of 10.844 cal/gram, ash content of 0,27%, 0,42% moisture and volatile content of 99,27%. From these results it can be seen that the briquettes from waste glasses of mineral water has a better quality. And when compared with the specifications of coal used in the kiln Indarung IV calorific value 5200 - 5600 cal/gram, maximum ash content of 20% and a maximum water content of 10%, then the two types of briquette plastic pellets can be used as a fuel substitute for coal. Based on the comparison of calorific value and the use of coal in the kiln Indarung IV which is an average of 35 tons / hour, then the ratio of the amount of usage of coal with briquettes from waste plastic bags is 1: 0.53, and with briquettes from waste plastic glasses of mineral water is 1: 0.50. Keywords: plastic waste, coal, briquettes, quality, fuel

Colapso por humedecimiento en los terraplenes de la autopista Páztcuaro-Uruapan

The behavior of compacted soil depends on its maximum dry density and water content. The embankments of roads must be designed to have tolerable deformations caused by their own weight, external stresses and volume changes produced by water content change. In the case of low plasticity soils the changes in humidity cause collapsing deformations, these deformations are accentuated in loose soils. As compacted soils are partially saturated soils, it is advisable to study the volumetric soil stability considering particular concepts of partially saturated soils such as the retention curve, the variation in permeability, the water flow and local climate. Based on the above concepts it is possible to determine, if the degree of compaction and the water content is suitable for design purposes. The results of an analysis of a typical embankment representative of the Pátzcuaro-Uruapan highway are presented in this work, water infiltration was quantified over time using the Barcelona Basic Model to estimate collapsing deformations. It was noted that there is a problem of low compacting soil degree, which causes collapse up to 48cm in an embankment of 15 m high over a period of three years.

Optimal configuration and pressure levels of electrolyzer plants in context of power-to-gas applications

Typical power-to-gas plants mainly consist of a water electrolyzer, a mechanical compressor, an active cooler and a dryer. The best sequence of the single components as well as the pressure levels throughout the process are ambiguous. They depend on the hydrogen delivery pressure and the humidity requirements of the final product.The present analysis is based on a uniform technology independent model framework of the single process units. It allows for the calculation of the overall energy demand, independent of the requirements on hydrogen pressure and water content. In the present contribution two main superordinate configurations, which differ in the sequence of mechanical compressor and dryer, are compared and the best pressure profile throughout the process is determined.The analysis exemplarily focuses on hydrogen delivery pressures between 1 and 100bar and an aimed maximal water content of 5μmol/mol, as required e.g. for automotive applications. The results show that the energy demand for drying dominates the total energy balance at low delivery pressure. Higher electrolyzer pressures increase the losses due to hydrogen crossover. A mechanical compression prior to drying can be used to reduce the overall energy demand of the process. The electrolyzer pressure can be kept below 20bar, which reduces hydrogen crossover and besides enables anyhow efficient drying at high pressures.

Feedstock Characterization and Suitability Assessment for Dry Anaerobic Batch Digestion

AbstractSubstrate characterization experiments were carried out on different feedstocks and structure materials considered appropriate for use in dry anaerobic batch digestion systems. Physical material characteristics tested were bulk and saturated bulk density, compressed density, permeability, compactibility, water holding capacity, maximum water content, and volatile solid content. Oedometer tests were conducted on prepared feedstock/structure material mixtures targeting a high permeability under compression. Porous materials such as straw and woodchips were tested to determine if they enhance material mixture properties to yield superior permeability and allow percolation.

Moisture content limits of Iron Ore Fines to prevent liquefaction during transport: Review and experimental study

Iron ore is without doubt one of the most essential commodities of our time. With this, the growing demand from countries, such as China and Japan for iron ore produced in countries, such as Australia and Brazil, is only increasing. Iron Ore Fines (IOF) are a product of iron ore, commonly having a particle size less than 6.3mm, which is transported around the world in bulk carriers. Since the holds of bulk carriers are not designed to carry liquid, if liquefaction of IOF or other minerals occurs, it can cause the vessel carrying the cargo to list or even capsize. Since 2006, there have been at least eight reported bulk carrier incidents possibly caused by the iron ore cargo shifting. Currently, the only available parameter used to prevent this from occurring is the Transportable Moisture Limit (TML). The TML is the maximum gross water content that certain mineral cargoes may contain, while being loaded in bulk carriers, without being at risk of liquefying during transportation. The first half of this paper presents a review of the three test methods stated in the 2013 International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes Code (IMSBC Code) and the recently introduced Modified Proctor/Fagerberg test (MPFT). Along with the aforementioned tests, also reviewed are recent developments and advancements made in the field. The second half of this paper presents a comparison of the results of our experimental study with two of the three 2013 IMSBC Code tests along with the MPFT. This study shows that the three test methods which are currently used to determine the TML of minerals are not appropriate for testing of IOF and that the Modified Proctor/Fagerberg test produces a value higher than all the other test methods when used to determine the TML of IOF.

Avoidance of harvesting and sampling artefacts in hydraulic analyses: a protocol tested on Malus domestica.

A prerequisite for reliable hydraulic measurements is an accurate collection of the plant material. Thereby, the native hydraulic state of the sample has to be preserved during harvesting (i.e., cutting the plant or plant parts) and preparation (i.e., excising the target section). This is particularly difficult when harvesting has to be done under transpiring conditions. In this article, we present a harvesting and sampling protocol designed for hydraulic measurements on Malus domestica Borkh. and checked for possible sampling artefacts. To test for artefacts, we analysed the percentage loss of hydraulic conductivity, maximum specific conductivity and water contents of bark and wood of branches, taking into account conduit length, time of day of harvesting, different shoot ages and seasonal effects. Our results prove that use of appropriate protocols can avoid artefactual embolization or refilling even when the xylem is under tension at harvest. The presented protocol was developed for Malus but may also be applied for other angiosperms with similar anatomy and refilling characteristics.

Lumped conceptual hydrological model for Purna river basin, India

In present study, a lumped conceptual hydrological model, NAM (MIKE11), is calibrated while optimizing the runoff simulations on the basis of minimization of percentage water balance (% WBL) and root mean square error (RMSE) using measured stream flow data of eight years from 1991 to 1998 for Yerli catchment (area = 15,701 km2) of upper Tapi basin, Maharashtra in Western India. The sensitivity of runoff volume and peak-runoff has been undertaken with reference to nine NAM parameters using the data of calibration period. The runoff volume and peak-runoff have been found to be highly sensitive with reference to maximum water content in root zone storage (L\(_{\max })\) and overland flow coefficient (CQOF) respectively. On the other hand, runoff volume is found to be moderately sensitive with maximum water content in surface storage (U\(_{\max })\). The calibrated model has been validated for independent stream flow data of Yerli gauging site for years 2001–2004, and Gopalkheda gauging site for years 1991–1998 and 2001–2004. The model performance has been assessed using statistical performance indices, and compared the same with their yardsticks suggested in published literature. The simulated results demonstrated that calibrated model is able to simulate hydrographs satisfactorily for Yerli (NSE = 0.86–0.88, r = 0.93–0.96, EI = 1.05–1.12) as well as Gopalkheda sub-catchments (NSE = 0.76–0.92 and r = 0.88–0.96, EI = 0.89–0.91) at monthly time scale. The model also performs reasonably well in simulating the annual hydrographs at daily time scale. The calibrated model may be useful in prediction of water yield and flooding conditions in the Purna catchment.