Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake Research Articles

Levels and Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Soil, Water, and Vegetables of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

This study assesses heavy metals’ levels in water, soil, and vegetables (Ipomoea batatas (Matembele), Amaranthus hybridus (Mchicha), Abelmoschus esculentus (Bamia), and Solanum melongena (Bilinganya)) from the Chang’ombe police garden located in Temeke district, Tanzania. Also, it examines potential health risks from consumption of the vegetables. The samples of soils, water, and vegetables were randomly collected, processed, and analyzed for heavy metals using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. The heavy metals’ levels in soil, water, and vegetables were in the order of Fe > Zn > Pb > Cu. Among the vegetables, I. batatas had highest heavy metal content followed by A. hybridus, S. melongena, and A. esculentus. The average daily intake for Pb (63 mg/person/day) was above the permissible maximum tolerable daily intake of 0.21 mg/person/day endorsed by WHO/FAO. Hazard quotient of Pb for I. batatas (7.12) and A. hybridus (2.46) as well as the hazard indices of I. batatas (7.99) and A. hybridus (2.88) exceeded unity, signifying presence of health risks from consumption of the vegetables. This study recommends regular monitoring of heavy metals in soils, water, and foodstuffs to prevent excessive accrual in food chain.

Occurrence and risk assessment of population exposed to deoxynivalenol in foods derived from wheat flour in Brazil

ABSTRACTDeoxynivalenol (DON) is the most important of the trichothecenes in terms of amounts and occurrence in wheat. This compound was shown to be associated with a glomerulonephropathy involving an increase of immunoglobulin A in humans. This study assessed the occurrence of DON in wheat flour and the exposure of Brazilian teenagers, adults and elderly to this mycotoxin due to intake of wheat flour-based products. DON extraction in wheat flour was carried out by solid phase extraction and the quantification was performed by ultra-high proficiency liquid chromatography with diode-array detection. A total of 77.9% of all samples were positive for DON, with concentrations ranging from 73.50 to 2794.63 µg kg−1. The intake was calculated for the average and 90th percentile of the contamination levels of DON in foods based-wheat for teenagers, adults and elderly in Brazil, and compared with the provisional maximum tolerable daily intakes (PMTDI). Females of all age groups were exposed to DON at higher levels when compared to males in regard of consumption of breads and pastas. Teenagers were the main consumers of foods derived from wheat flour, with maximum probable daily intakes of 1.28 and 1.20 µg kg−1 b.w. day−1 for females and males, respectively. This population is at an increased risk of exposure to DON due to consumption of wheat flour-based foods in Brazil.

Abstract B24: Biological approaches for reducing fumonisin carcinogens in maize

Abstract Control methods to reduce exposure to the fumonisin carcinogens in maize are critical, especially in rural subsistence populations at an increased risk. The fumonisins are a group of mycotoxins mainly produced by Fusarium spp. They are hepatocarcinogenic to rodents, and have been associated with oesophageal and liver cancer in subsistence maize farming communities around the world. The intact molecule and the free amino group determine the cancer-initiating activity, while the carballylic acid moiety plays an active role in absorption of the fumonisins from the gut. Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is the most abundant naturally occurring fumonisin on maize and maize-based food worldwide and is classified as a Group 2B carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) has determined a group provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) for FB1, FB2, and FB3, alone or in combination, of 2 µg/kg body weight/day. In many Sub-Saharan countries, where both maize contamination and maize consumption are high, regulatory mechanisms to control mycotoxin levels, including fumonisin, are either lacking or are not enforced. Therefore, reducing exposure levels by interventions, specifically those based on simple low-cost measures acceptable to these communities, becomes relevant. Although certain physical and chemical methods for control of Fusarium diseases and the fumonsins in maize are currently applied, there are several concerns with regards to the health, safety and environmental risks. Biologically based methods are increasingly being explored, including several approaches pre-harvest (breeding for resistant maize cultivars; introduction of biocontrol microorganisms; application of phenolic plant extracts; expression of antifungal proteins and fumonisin degrading enzymes in transgenic maize cultivars). Postharvest approaches include removal of fumonisins from food by natural clay adsorbents and enzymatic degradation of fumonisins through decarboxylation and deamination by recombinant carboxylesterase and aminotransferase enzymes. This paper will discuss biologically based control methods with special emphasis on the development of food-grade recombinant enzymes and its possible application during the conditioning stage of commercial dry milling of maize. Cultural specific and simple intervention strategies for introduction of these methods to rural communities at risk will also be discussed. Biologically based approaches could be beneficial as control measure to reduce exposure of populations exposed to high levels of this carcinogen. Citation Format: Johanna Francina Alberts, Willem Heber Van Zyl, Wentzel Christoffel Gelderblom. Biological approaches for reducing fumonisin carcinogens in maize [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the AACR International Conference: New Frontiers in Cancer Research; 2017 Jan 18-22; Cape Town, South Africa. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2017;77(22 Suppl):Abstract nr B24.

Application of modified cloud point extraction method for the chromium speciation in artificial saliva extracts of different snuff products

A modified cloud point extraction method (m-CPE) was developed for the speciation of chromium species (Cr3+ and Cr6+) in artificial saliva extracts (ASE) of snuff products. In this method, Cr3+ was complexed with 8-hydroxyquinoline, which was trapped in nonionic surfactant (Triton X-114), prior to analyzed by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometer (ETAAS). Whereas, the total extractable Cr was determined by reducing Cr6+ to Cr3+ using Na2SO3 as a reducing reagent. Several parameters were optimized for the developed m-CPE. Under the most favorable conditions, enrichment factor, enhancement factor and limit of detection for the proposed method were 60, 134 and 0.04μgL−1, respectively having relative standard deviation <5%. Health risks associated with the intake of total Cr in snuff products was also assessed. Estimated daily intake of Cr via sniffing 10g/day of dry and moist snuff products was found below the maximum tolerable daily intake whereas the calculated risk for cancer due to Cr was observed in the acceptable range of 10 E−6–E−4.

Heavy metals in common food items in Kolkata, India

An assessment of heavy metal contamination in rice, red lentil, spice (Cumin), locally made snack (biscuit), leafy vegetable (red spinach), fish, chicken and medicinal herb (Tulsi) sampled from 20 street side market locations in Kolkata, India, was done. The mean metal concentrations in all the food items decreased in the order of Fe > Zn > Mn > Pb > Cu > Cr > Ni > As. The range (in mg kg−1) of the mean values exhibited by the eight metals was 0.03–2.52 (As), 1.04–17.05 (Cu), 5.97–146.07 (Fe), 0.90–4.42(Cr), 1.00–57.14 (Mn), 0.74–4.48 (Ni), 3.87–52.95 (Zn) and 5.17–32.11 (Pb). The health risk assessment from the consumption of metal contaminated food items revealed that except for Pb, the daily intake of As, Cu, Cr, Mn and Zn was found to be within the prescribed maximum tolerable daily intake values. The cancerous risk (CR) value for As ranged from 3.05E−06 to 5.537E−03 while for Pb it was from 2.99E−06 to 9.89E−04. The CR values were found to be above the threshold values of 10E−04 (As) and 10E−06 (Pb) in the case of rice, vegetable, fish and chicken.

Vortex-Assisted Modified Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Microextraction of Trace Levels of Cadmium in Surface Water and Groundwater Samples of Tharparkar, Pakistan, Optimized by Multivariate Technique.

A simple vortex-assisted modified dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction procedure is proposed for the enrichment of cadmium (Cd+2) in surface (stored rainwater) and groundwater of the Tharparkar district in Pakistan, before analysis by flame atomic absorption spectrometry. Ammonium pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate was used as a ligand to make a hydrophobic complex of Cd+2, which was extracted in an ionic liquid (1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate), and the nonionic surfactant Triton X-114 was applied as a dispersing medium. The contents of tubes were shaken for different time intervals on a vortex mixer to enhance extraction efficiency. A multivariate strategy was used to simultaneously evaluate seven factors including, concentration of the complexing reagent, pH, amounts of ionic liquid and Triton X-114, vortex shaking time, centrifugation time and extracting solution for their influence on the percentage recovery of the analyte. The important variables were further optimized by central composite design. The preconcentration factor and LOD were observed as 76.9 and 0.048 µg/L, respectively. The Certified Reference Material SRM1643e was used to check the validity of the developed method, and the RSD was found to be 4.02%. The proposed technique was successfully applied for the enrichment of Cd+2 in groundwater and surface water samples from the southeastern part of Pakistan. The observed results revealed that the concentration of Cd+2 in groundwater was higher than the World Health Organization recommended value of 3 µg/L for drinking water. For adults weighing approximately 60 kg, consumption of groundwater for drinking and other domestic purposes would provide levels of Cd+2 that are 2- to 3-fold higher than the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake.

Concentrations of heavy metals in marine wild fishes captured from the southern sea of Korea and associated health risk assessments

Concentrations of heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb, and Zn) were determined in edible parts (muscle) of 34 marine wild fish caught from the southern sea of Korea in 2007 and 2008 in order to understand the accumulation pattern of heavy metals in wild fish and to assess the potential health risk posed by fish consumption. The highest concentrations in the muscle of 17 pelagic and 17 demersal fishes were Zn and As, respectively, while the lowest concentration in both fishes was Cd. The mean concentrations of all metals except As in wild fish were much lower than the regulatory limits for fish and fishery products applied in a number of countries. Unlike other metals, As concentration in wild fish of this study region was relatively higher than that found in other country. Estimated daily intake (EDI) of the metals was in the range of 0.05% to 22.5% of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intakes (PMTDI). Similarly, the target hazard quotient (THQ) was below 1.0 for each metal. These results imply that the consumption of the investigated wild fish do not cause significant adverse health effects.

Variation in arsenic bioavailability in rice genotypes using swine model: An animal study

An in vivo assay using swine was used to measure the absolute bioavailability (AB) of As from cooked rice of twelve genotypes commonly grown in Bangladesh. An assessment of both total As in rice and its bioavailability is crucial for estimating human exposure following dietary intake by the local community. Average As concentrations in each rice genotype ranged from 108±4μg/kg to 580±6μg/kg. Arsenic speciation shows that most of the rice genotype contains 73 to 100% inorganic As. Swine were administered with As orally and via intravenous method, i.e. injection and fed certain common Bangladeshi rice genotypes (cooked). Swine blood As levels were measured to calculate As bioavailability from rice. Pilot studies shows that for As(III) and As(V), 90.8±12.4% and 85.0±19.2% of the administered oral dose was absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract whereas organic As was poorly absorbed resulting in low bioavailability values 20.2±2.6% (MMA) to 31.2±3.4% (DMA), respectively. These studies demonstrates that rice genotypic characters influenced As bioavailability in rice grown in As-contaminated areas and the bioavailability varied between 25% and 94%. Arsenic in salt tolerant rice genotypes Binadhan-10 and BRRI dhan47 as well as brown rice genotypes Kheali Boro and Local Boro has lower bioavailability (<50%) compared to other rice genotypes. The most commonly cultivated and consumed variety (BRRI dhan28) has As bioavailability of 70%, which poses a significant risk to consumers. Calculation of maximum tolerable daily intake (MTDI) for humans due to consumption of rice based on bioavailability data was higher than those calculated based on inorganic and organic As concentration in rice genotypes.

Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in raw cow, goat and sheep milk during spring and autumn in Croatia during 2016

Raw cow, goat and sheep milk samples were collected in different regions of Croatia during spring and autumn 2016. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) concentrations were measured in the following ranges (ng/kg): cow milk 0.93–85.4; goat milk 2.0–18.6; sheep milk 2.27–11.2. AFM1 levels exceeding the European Union maximum residue levels of 50 ng/kg were found in two cow milk samples in spring and 10 cow milk samples in autumn. The probable daily intakes (PDIs) for all three dairy species were from 0.0108 to 0.0165 ng/kg b.w./day and contributing 1.08–1.65% to the proposed provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI; 1 ng/kg b.w./day), indicating low risk exposure for consumers. The mean positive cow milk PDI was 0.15 ng/kg b.w./day, contributing 15.2% to the PMTDI.

Natural occurrence of fumonisins B1 and B2 in maize from eight provinces of China in 2014

ABSTRACTA total of 249 maize kernel samples from 8 maize-producing provinces of China were collected after the harvest season in 2014. All samples were analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography. The incidences of FBs (FB1 + FB2) from Guizhou, Hebei, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, Chongqing, Liaoning, Heilongjiang, and Henan provinces were 71.4%, 73.8%, 28.0%, 52.6%, 85.0%, 87.5%, 38.1%, and 100.0%, respectively. The average concentration of FBs was 817 µg kg−1 and the concentrations ranged from <6 to 15,252 µg kg−1. Among the 249 maize kernel samples, 28 samples exhibited higher levels as set by the Food and Drug Administration (2000 µg kg−1), whereas 12 samples exhibited higher levels as set by the European Commission (4000 µg kg−1). The average exposure to FBs (0.12 µg kg−1 body weight/day) is within the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2.0 µg kg−1 body weight as set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives.

Vortex-assisted ionic liquid-based dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction for assessment of chromium species in artificial saliva extract of different chewing tobacco products

A novel dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (ILDLLμE) method using an extracting solvent (ionic liquid) and dispersant (Triton X-114) was developed for the separation and preconcentration of hexavalent chromium (Cr6+) in artificial saliva extract (ASE) of chewing tobacco products, gutkha, and mainpuri (n=23). In the proposed method, the extraction of Cr6+ was accomplished by using ammonium pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate (APDC) as complexing agent and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate [C4MIM] [PF6] as extracting solvent. The tiny droplet of metal chelate was then dispersed into TX-114 emulsion, using vortex mixer. Various parameters such as concentration of APDC, pH of the solution, volume of [C4MIM] [PF6], and TX-114 as well as extraction time were studied. Under the most favorable conditions, the limit of detection was found to be 0.068μg/L with the relative standard deviation <5%. The enrichment factor of developed method was found as 62.5, and method has been effectively applied for the analysis of Cr species in artificial saliva extract of gutkha and mainpuri products. The Cr6+ was quantitatively recovered (<97%) under optimal conditions, while the recovery of trivalent specie (Cr3+), at the same experimental conditions, was observed to be <5%. The Cr3+ was determined by the difference of total Cr and Cr6+ in artificial saliva extract of selected STP. Health risks associated with the intake of total Cr in gutkha and mainpuri were assessed in terms of estimated daily intake, such as carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic risks. Estimated daily intake of Cr via chewing 10g/day of gutkha and mainpuri was found to be below the maximum tolerable daily intake, whereas the calculated risk of cancer for Cr was observed in the acceptable range of 10E-6-10E-4, except some brands of gutkha. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.

Widespread occurrence of perchlorate in water, foodstuffs and human urine collected from Kuwait and its contribution to human exposure

ABSTRACTPerchlorate is a thyroid hormone-disrupting compound and is reported to occur widely in the environment. Little is known on human exposure to perchlorate in Kuwait. In this study, 218 water samples, 618 commonly consumed foodstuffs and 532 urine samples collected from Kuwait were analysed to assess the exposure of the Kuwaiti population to perchlorate. For the estimation of daily intake of perchlorate, food consumption rates were obtained from the National Nutrition Survey in the State of Kuwait (NNSSK). The results showed that leafy vegetables accounted for a major share of perchlorate exposure among the Kuwaiti population at 0.062 µg kg–1 bw day–1 (36.2%), followed by fruits at 0.026 µg kg–1 bw day–1 (15.3%) and non-leafy vegetables at 0.017 µg kg–1 bw day–1 (10.1%). The urinary perchlorate geometric mean (GM) concentrations ranged from 8.51 to 17.1 µg l–1 for the five age groups, which were higher than those reported in other countries. The estimated urinary perchlorate exposure for the Kuwaiti general population was 0.42 µg kg–1 bw day–1, which was higher than that reported for the United States. The dietary intake of perchlorate for the Kuwaiti population ranged from 0.14 to 0.67 µg kg–1 bw day–1 for the five age groups, with a mean total daily intake of 0.17 µg kg–1 bw day–1 for the general population. The highest estimated dietary mean daily intake of perchlorate (0.67 µg kg–1 bw day–1) was found for children at 3–5 years. The estimated dietary perchlorate exposure in Kuwait is higher than the recommended mean reference dose (RfD) but lower than that of provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA).

Gamma radiation inhibits the production of Ochratoxin A by Aspergillus carbonarius. Development of a method for OTA determination in raisins

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin of great interest to humans for its nephrotoxic effects. The development and validation of an OTA method determination in raisins is described by using High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with Fluorescence Detector (FD). The recovery of the method was 104% while the detection limit (DL) and quantification limit were 0.26 and 0.51 ng g−1, respectively. The effect of gamma irradiation at dose of 10 kGy on the production of OTA by Aspergillus carbonarius in raisins (Vitis vinifera L.) and on OTA in contaminated samples, was investigated. The OTA which was produced by A. carbonarius on the 12th day of incubation, after irradiation, showed that at dose level of 10 kGy, OTA production was not detectable (below the detection limit of the method) compared with the non-irradiated the same day. A dose of 10-kGy gamma radiation applied on 100 ng of OTA, in raisins reduced OTA contamination ~88%. According to the risk assessment analysis the Provisional Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake (PMTDI) of 5.8 ng OTA kg−1 bw, indicates that adult consumers are less exposed, 31.4–78.4 fold lower to OTA by the irradiated raisins.

Evaluation of dietary exposure to deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivatives from cereals in China

Probabilistic estimation of dietary exposure to DON, including its acetylated derivatives, and type B trichothecenes from cereals and cereal-based products in Chinese populations was investigated in the current work. Different cut-offs as proposed Maximum levels (MLs) for DON in various raw cereals and/or cereal-based foods were assessed based on the risk assessment results. Occurrence data was documented from 31 provinces of China over the year 2010–2013. Food consumption data was obtained from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey conducted in 2002. Dietary exposure was implemented by Monte Carlo (MC) simulations and Bootstrap resampling. The exposure distributions were specified as percentiles with confidence intervals (95% CIs) and compared with the group provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 1 μg/kg bw/day and the group acute reference dose (ARfD) of 8 μg/kg bw/day for DON and its acetylated derivatives. Results indicate that 75% of children and 90% of the general population and the adults are under the group PMTDI value, while 99% of the three populations are under ARfD value. However, under the assumptions of the proposed cut-offs, the P99.9 percentiles would decrease significantly. The probabilistic assessment in this study indicated that high-end exposure to DON and its derivatives should be concerned, especially for children. Rigorous formulation of maximum limits for DON and its derivatives in the relevant foodstuffs combined with increased monitoring should be considered as an effective way to reduce risk.

Occurrence and risk assessment of mycotoxins in subsistence farmed maize from Zimbabwe

Maize is the staple food of Zimbabweans and is consumed daily in the majority of households, particularly subsistence farming households. The objectives of this study were first, to determine the occurrence of mycotoxins in maize produced and consumed by subsistence farmers in Zimbabwe and second, to determine mycotoxin exposure through maize consumption and subsequently the human health risk. A total of 95 maize meal samples were collected from the household stores of randomly selected subsistence farming households. Maize intake data and agronomic practices of these households were investigated A multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS method was used to analyze and quantify mycotoxin contamination in the maize samples. Mycotoxin contamination was compared across agro-ecological zones in order to determine differences in mycotoxin contamination levels and presented. Of the toxicologically relevant mycotoxins, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), fumonisin B1 (FB1), FB2, deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) were detected in 1, 95, 31, 24 and 15 % of the samples at mean levels of 11, 242, 120, 217 and 110 μg/kg respectively. Other mycotoxins detected in the maize were 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON), nivalenol (NIV), FB3, alternariol-methylether (AME), AFB2, AFG1 and diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) and the percentage contamination ranged between 1 and 4 % in the maize samples. Contamination of the maize by the mycotoxins was observed at minimum levels below limit of detection for each mycotoxin and maximum levels of 105, 530, 67, 108, 3, 4 and 14 μg/kg for 15-ADON, NIV, FB3, AME, AFB2, AFG1 and DAS respectively. The median levels of each mycotoxin were reported below the limit of detection, with the exception of FB1 (median, 146 μg/kg), which was further considered in the exposure and risk assessment. Dietary exposure was derived from combining mean maize intake data and median FB1 contamination. Mean maize intake was estimated to be 26.8, 37.2, 30.1, 15.8 and 15.0 g/kg bodyweight (bw)/day for under 5s, children, adolescents, adults and the elderly respectively. Subsequently FB1 exposure from maize was calculated, to be 3.91, 5.40, 4.40, 2.30 and 2.20 μg/kg bw/day for these populations. Exposure to FB1 through maize intake was observed to equate to 196, 272, 220, 115 and 110 % of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (2 μg/kg bw/day) for under 5s, children, adolescents, adults and the elderly respectively. Subsistence farming communities in Zimbabwe are at risk of high exposure to FB1 and the risk was highest for under 5s, children and adolescents respectively.

Presence of heavy metals in fruits and vegetables: Health risk implications in Bangladesh

The presence of toxic heavy metals such as As, Cd, Pb, Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, and Zn in nationally representative samples of highly consumed fruits and vegetables was determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Their concentrations exceeded the maximum allowable concentration (MAC) set by FAO/WHO for Pb in mango and Cd in tomato among the analyzed fruits and vegetables. Pb content in mango was found to be six times higher than the safe limit at production level. Health risks associated with the intake of these metals were evaluated in terms of estimated daily intake (EDI), and carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic risks by target hazard quotient (THQ) and hazard index (HI). EDI values of all the metals were found to be below the maximum tolerable daily intake (MTDI). The THQs of all metals were <1, suggesting no health hazards for adult population. However, total THQs of Mn and Cu were >1 through consumption of all vegetables, indicating significant health risks. HI was found to be <1 (0.825) for consumption of fruits; however, it was >1 (3.727) for vegetable consumption, suggesting adverse health effects from vegetable consumption only. The total carcinogenic risk (CR) of As was below the threshold level (10−6) and 9.82E-05 for Pb, suggesting no potential CR from As consumption, but indicating the risk of Pb-induced carcinogenesis. The findings of this study reveal the health risks associated with the consumption of heavy metals through the intake of selected fruits and vegetables in adult population of Bangladesh.

Estimated exposure to zearalenone, ochratoxin A and aflatoxin B1 through the consume of bakery products and pasta considering effects of food processing

The objective of this research was to estimate the processing effect on mycotoxins levels and the exposure to zearalenone (ZEA), ochratoxin (OTA) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) through the consumption of pasta and bakery products. The higher reduction percentage of mycotoxins was observed in cake production (95, 90 and 70% for ZEA, OTA and AFB1, respectively). Bread and biscuit showed similar reduction in mycotoxins levels (89 and 90% for ZEA; 80 and 85% for OTA; 36 and 40% for AFB1, respectively). The lower reduction in the levels of mycotoxins has been observed for pasta (75, 65 and 10% for ZEA, OTA and AFB1, respectively). The consumption of these products could represent 12.6% of the maximum tolerable daily intake of ZEA and 30.5% of the tolerable weekly intake of OTA. The margin of exposure value related to the exposure to AFB1 was 24.6. The exposure to ZEA and OTA through the consumption of bakery products and pasta would not represent risk for consumer health, (although conjugated forms were not determined). However, the exposure to AFB1 represents a risk (even without considering the AFB1-conjugated forms).

Health risk assessment of trace elements via dietary intake of 'non-piscine protein source' foodstuffs (meat, milk and egg) in Bangladesh.

Concentrations of six trace elements [chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and arsenic (As)] were assessed in 'non-piscine protein source' foodstuffs (meat, milk and eggs) to evaluate contamination level and human health risks in Bangladesh. The range of Cr, Ni, Cu, Cd, Pb and As in the investigated foodstuffs was 1.24-2.17, 1.29-2.56, 0.92-2.31, 0.12-0.44, 0.15-0.48 and 0.14-0.57mgkg fresh weight(-1), respectively. The estimated mean levels of most of the elements were higher than the maximum allowable concentration (MAC) for dietary foods. The estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of Cr and Cd were higher than the maximum tolerable daily intake (MTDI) for children, indicating that they are more susceptible to toxic elements through food consumption. The target hazard quotients (THQs) and target carcinogenic risk (TCR) of As (THQ > 1 and TCR > 10(-4)) for both the adults and children suggest that the consumers of non-piscine foodstuffs (especially cow milk and chicken meat) are exposed chronically to metal pollution with carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health consequences.

Risk assessment of children’s exposure to potentially harmful elements (PHE) in selected urban parks of the Silesian agglomeration

The author determined the total contents of selected elements potentially hazardous for health (PHE): As, Be, Cd, Co, Cu, Ni and Sn in soils, sand of sandboxes and airborne dust collected in three urban parks of the Silesian agglomeration. The upper limit of Cd content (a Polish regulation) was exceeded in the soils of two largest and most frequented parks, the Silesian Park and the Kościuszko Park. The mean Cd contents in soils are 9 and 7 mg/kg, respectively. The metal contents of the sand from sandboxes are generally much lower than those of the soils: Cu 28 times on average, As 13 times, and Cd and Ni around 4 times, while the Co and Sn contents of sand are comparable with those of soils. Airborne dusts are a significant source of metals: they contain Cd (1–20 mg/kg), Co (2–17 mg/kg) and Cu (6–143 mg/kg). The quotients of the health risk indicate a potential health risk caused by As, Cd and Ni for children, particularly those with a low (below 15 kg) body weight. The risk level of 1–4% PTMDI (Provisional Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake) origins from an accidental swallowing of soil.

Heavy metal content and potential health risk of geophagic white clay from the Kumasi Metropolis in Ghana.

Geophagia is the craving for non-food substances and commonly practiced among pregnant women and children. Consumption of geophagic clay samples can have serious implications on the health of the consumers as a result of the presence of toxic metals such as Pb, As, Hg and Cd. This study sought to determine the levels of heavy metals in the studied geophagic clay samples and to determine the potential risks of heavy metals as cumulative carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks to the health of the consumers via oral (ingestion) and dermal exposure routes. A total of thirty (30) white clay samples were analysed using Niton Thermo scientific XRF Analyser (Mobile Test S, NDTr-XL3t-86956, com 24). The clay samples were found to contain essential elements such as Ca, Fe, K and Zn as well as toxic metals such as As and Pb. There were isolated cases of the presence of Hg and all samples had Cd levels below detection. Health risk indices such as hazard quotient and cancer risk were calculated and the results indicated that consumers are likely to suffer from cancer through ingestion of geophagic clay. Bioaccessibility studies were done on zinc and it did not indicate any potential toxicity due to zincs essential nature. The levels of heavy metals in some of the geophagic clay consumed by some residents in the Kumasi were high compared to the Permitted Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake (PMTDI) by (WHO/FAO) and may pose potential health threat over time.