Maximum Permissible Amount Research Articles

Investigation of monosodium glutamate content in flavors, seasonings, and sauces from local markets in Turkey.

Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is a flavor-enhancing compound used to elevate the flavor profiles of various foods. This flavor enhancer is the sodium salt of L-glutamic acid and is widely used in foods, such as flavorings, seasonings, sauces, and instant soups. The potential health effects of MSG consumption, particularly the health issues that excessive consumption could lead to, have been the focus of social concerns. It is stated that excessive consumption of MSG can cause cardiovascular diseases, obesity and diabetes, kidney damage, hypertension, anxiety, and memory impairment. The maximum permissible amount of MSG in foods is set at 10 g/kg according to the Turkish Food Codex. The aim of this study is to develop an appropriate method for analyzing the MSG content within the various food samples like flavorings, seasonings, and spices sold in Turkish local markets. The validation parameters of the developed method were examined and it was found that the developed method corresponds to the recommended values. The limit of detection and the limit of quantitation values were calculated as 4.78 ng/mL and 15.93 ng/mL, respectively. Recovery % was determined to be 100.96% in intra-day and 132.22% in inter-day analyses for the precision of the method. The results compared to the values specified in the Turkish Food Codex Food Additives Regulation and samples that purportedly did not contain MSG on their labels were found to contain MSG.

Применение компоста цитрусовых для подкисления серо-коричневых почв

The use of organic fertilizers in modern agricultural production helps maintain soil fertility and reduces the consumption of mineral fertilizers. The use of composts obtained from waste from canning production is especially important. This article discusses the issue of using citrus processing waste to produce acidic composts, which in turn can reduce soil alkalinity. The data obtained show that composts obtained from citrus processing waste by the method of “hot” composting have a long action time and gradually reduce the pH of gray-brown soils. The largest decrease in pH was observed when adding 8-10 kg of compost per 1 m2. The reduced pH value remained throughout the entire experiment - 18 months, which indicates a prolonged effect of the compost. Control experiments using the maximum permissible amount of colloidal sulfur showed that, although a decrease in pH occurred, it was temporary - after 18 months a slight increase in pH was observed. Keywords: COMPOST, CITRUS WASTE, SOIL pH REDUCTION, SOIL ACIDIFICATION

Investigating and Measuring Radon Gas Concentration in Tehran and Alborz Metro Stations

Abstract Humans are regularly exposed to various types of radioactive radiation and, of course, to Radon-222 over the course of their lives. According to the report of the United Nations scientific committee on the effects of atomic radiation in 2000, the average human is estimated to be exposed to about 4.2 mSv of radioactive radiation each year, 52% of which is caused by inhalation of radon gas. The radon gas is one of the most important elements that is emitted from the decay of natural uranium and radium in the earth. Therefore, the concentration of this gas can be higher in enclosed spaces, especially underground locations, and it is important to measure the amount of radon gas radiation in these underground stations. In this research, a domestically manufactured environmental meter for radon gas was used to measure the concentration of this gas in different Tehran metro stations. In general, all 42 subway stations of Tehran and Karaj cities were measured at continuous time intervals during the spring season. On average, trace amounts of radon gas were observed in all the stations, but high concentrations of radon gas were measured at some stations, such as Tajrish and Ghaem stations in the northern Tehran-Karaj plain due to underground water resources, fault type and distinct geological structures. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) standard, the maximum permissible amount of radon gas concentration in the air is 148 Bq/m3, while the average amount was 156 Bq/m3 at Tajrish station. This amount is above the permissible limit and can therefore be considered hazardous to health. Geologically, the Meydan-e-Azadi (Azadi square) station on line 4 located in the center of Tehran also revealed a near high radon concentration due to bedrock that it mainly has been consisted of calcite. Consequently, measures for better ventilation and easier air movement are required in such stations.

Assessment of the water quality of Lake Baikal and its tributaries in areas affected by local pollution based on microbiological and hydrochemical data

The water quality of Lake Baikal and its tributaries, influenced by seven different local pollution sources, was assessed in the areas of wastewater discharge from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) of the towns of Slyudyanka, Baikalsk, and Severobaikalsk, as well as domestic wastewater discharge from tourist resorts and Maksimikha settlement, runoff of hot springs from thermal baths in Zmeinaya Bay, Baikal seal rookeries, and the tourist center on Tonky Island of the Ushkanyi Islands archipelago in September 2022. The waters of the lake and the Rivers Pokhabikha, Maksimikha, and Tyya using microbiological and hydrochemical analysis methods are assessed as clean II class quality (GOST 17.1.3.07-82), except for the coastal water zone opposite the mouth of the Pokhabikha River, where the water is defined as moderately polluted. The unequal distribution of the values of the self-purification coefficient indicates a high abundance of microflora of allochthonous origin and a low activity of autochthonous microorganisms involved in self-purification processes in the studied areas of the lake. It was found that wastewater discharged by treatment facilities; water at the mouth and surface water of the Baikal in the estuary of the Pohabikha River, water in thermal baths of hot springs in Zmeinaya Bay do not meet the requirements of SanPiN 1.2.3685-21 for the maximum permissible amount of generalized coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli and Enterococcus. At all control stations in the pelagic zone of Lake Baikal, remote from the studied local polluted sites, water quality indicators did not exceed the safety water standards for surface water bodies in terms of microbiological and hydrochemical parameters.

Инвестиционные налоговые льготы в России: законодательное регулирование

Introduction: tax incentives are an important part of the modern tax system. Despite many years of discussion on the extent to which investment-oriented tax incentives are needed, no clear answer has yet been provided. An important feature of the Russian Federation is the variety and complexity of tax incentives design, which can reduce transparency, as well as prevent a clear understanding of impact mechanism and become a threat to the tax security of the state. This emphasizes the importance and relevance of a detailed analysis into the investment tax incentives design. Objectives: to conduct an analysis and inventory of investment tax incentives in Russia and to develop guidelines for improving the List of Investment Tax Incentives. Such analysis is not yet available in domestic research. Methods: comparative analysis of normative legal documents, collection and analysis of quantitative data, structural analysis, system approach. Results: it was found that all investment tax incentives can be classified according to the presence of a certain investment condition. However, the minimum required capital investment varies considerably from one type of preferential treatment to another and from region to region. At the same time, the limit on the maximum permissible amount of underpayments resulting from investment tax incentives introduction rarely correlates with the volume of investments made, even though the level of tax expenditures produced by investment-oriented tax benefits accounts for a significant proportion of the tax revenues in the Russian Federation budget system. Conclusions: the study revealed the following key features of investment tax incentives: these lead to a reduction in the tax burden of the taxpayer; can be aimed not only at stimulating investment activity, but also used for other economic policy objectives; their application creates tax expenditures for the state.

International experience of regulation of odourous substances in the ambient air (literature review)

The article provides an overview of the foreign literature data on the justification of permissible content of odourous substances in the ambient air. The process of harmonization of Russian legislation with international norms and rules, including the field of regulating atmospheric air pollution with specific odours, is shown to necessitate significantly expanding approaches to the issues of standardization and assessing environmental pollution by emissions from enterprises - odour sources. Analysis of foreign experience in odour management in the environment shows the main criteria for assessing air quality to include the absence of “annoyance” of the population by odours, maximum permissible concentrations for individual substances, maximum permissible concentrations for ambient odours, permissible odour frequency, minimum distances from the source, odour intensity, the maximum permissible amount of emissions, compliance with technological standards. Accordingly, in different countries recommended or mandatory limiting values were established on the base on which criterion for assessing odour exposure is decisive in this case. Typically, different jurisdictions use more than one approach to odour assessment, as do various regulatory indicators depending on the situation with the type of enterprise, the characteristics of residential sites and other receptor points. According to many authors, the application of various air quality standards for odour and a carefully thought-out approach to odour management can successfully or completely resolve most conflicts when working with the local population. The search for sources devoted to the issues of standardization of odourous substances was carried out in the text databases as PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, Web of Science, Research Gate, Springer Link and the scientific electronic library eLibrary.ru. The article analyzes the articles of journals indexed in the RSCI, Scopus, for 2001-2021.

GEANT4 simulation of parasitic X-ray radiation for backward wave oscillator SINUS-350

Parasitic X-ray radiation for the backward wave oscillator SINUS-350 is investigated. Using the GEANT4 simulation toolkit we have made a model of this oscillator which allows calculating the radiation dose and energy spectrum around the accelerator. The results of these calculations have been compared with measurements for 2 s accelerator operation time. The obtained values of radiation doses at a distance of 1–2 m from the generator are in the range (10–300) μSv. These values significantly exceed the maximum permissible amount because the personal maximum permissible dose per year is 1000 μSv. Therefore, the question of how to achieve a significant reduction is very important. We have also calculated the energy spectrum of the X-rays for different places. The largest part of the spectrum is in the range 50–350 keV.

THE IMPACT OF AGROTECHNICAL FACTORS ON THE CONTENTS OF CHROMIUM AND NICKEL IN GRITS OF SELECTED VARIETIES OF SPRING BARLEY

Fertilization and soil tillage have an important position in agriculture, because the modification and availability of nutrients from the soil to plants, as well as heavy metals are related to these mentioned treatments. The main negative impact of heavy metals on the environment is their non-degradability. In our study, the samples of barley grits were analysed, where chromium and nickel contents were determined depending on different agrotechnical methods of growing cereal plants. The field trials were based on a plot of land in the cadastral territory of Dolná Malanta near the city of Nitra in the Slovak Republic. The plot area was 14 m2. In the experiment, three different dosages of macroelements into the soil were applied, and two methods of soil treatment by ploughing were also performed. Barley grits were obtained by grinding of grains of four varieties of spring barley: KM2084, Lédi, Xanadu and Marthe. The lowest content of chromium and nickel in barley grits was determined in the KM2084 variety. The amounts of chromium in the barley grits of our tested samples were in the range 0.17-0.77 mg.kg-1 dry matter and nickel 0.05-0.76 mg.kg-1 dry matter, respectively. According to the Food Code of the Slovak Republic, the maximum permissible amount of chromium (0.77 mg.kg-1) was exceeded, mainly in the Lédi variety, in the case of nickel, its exceeding of the maximum permissible amounts (0,76 mg.kg-1) was not determined in any variety. NPK fertilization in the ratio 16:1:4 (70 kg N ha-1) in combination with minimization ploughing, as well as fertilization in the ratio 2.5:1:1.5 (60 kg N ha-1) in combination with conventional ploughing had an effect on an increase in chromium contents in barley grain in all varieties, but at the same time caused a decrease in nickel contents, except for the Xanadu variety. The same values were determined in the fertilized variant with the addition of limestone after the application of conventional ploughing. The application of conventional ploughing on unfertilized areas had an effect on the increase of nickel contents in all varieties and the decrease of chromium contents in three varieties of spring barley.

Performance of similitude methods for structural vibration analyses of rectangular plates

Engineers often use similitude analyses to design small scale models for experimental tests or to design size ranges of mechanical structures such as drive technology systems. This paper is concerned with similitude analysis methods for vibration analyses of rectangular plates. If their geometry is scaled by different factors (distorted similitude), the scaling laws approximate the actual vibration responses with a certain accuracy only. This paper introduces a performance measure that reliably assesses how well the scaling laws approximate the actual vibration responses of rectangular plates. This measure, the so-called Mahalanobis distance, applies in a-posteriori analyses, where the vibration responses obtained from the scaling laws are compared to the actual ones. Numerical and experimental investigations on vibrating rectangular plates validate that the Mahalanobis distance is suitable to assess the performance of similitude analyses. The Mahalanobis distance can be linked to the geometrical properties of the rectangular plates in order to define a maximum permissible distortion of the geometry. Scaling laws approximate the vibration responses of the rectangular plates sufficiently well up to this maximum permissible distortion. Furthermore, the performance of two different state-of-the-art similitude analysis methods is compared. Both similitude analysis methods are found to perform well up to the maximum permissible amount of geometrical distortion.

Libertariańska teoria kary i samoobrony

The libertarian theory of punishment is based on the restitution principle and the mirror principle. The former states that the perpetrator should compensate for the harm caused to the victim. The latter states that the perpetrator forfeits his or her rights to the extent that he or she has deprived another person of theirs. Both in determining damages as well as in imposing mirror punishment the principle of proportionality must be followed. Thus, the appropriate libertarian punishment for a rights violation is a combined punishment which includes both rectification and mirror punishment. The libertarian theory of punishment sets an upper limit on punishment but there is no obligation on victim to impose the maximum penalty. The victim is the sole disposer of the punishment; it is up to the victim to decide whether the punishment is to be carried out and whether it should take the maximum permissible amount. When the victim is dead and has left no disposition as to the application of the mirror punishment, the punishment can be applied by a third party. In analyzing the libertarian theory of self-defense, we should take into account both the mirror principle and the principle of gentleness, which states that the defending party should use the least amount of violence necessary to provide effective protection. A situation where a victim is unable to use an adequate amount of violence and can either forego defending themselves or use a disproportionate amount of violence poses an interesting challenge for libertarian theory and requires further analysis.

DETERMINATION OF VOLUMES OF MELT AND SLAG DURING MELTING IN THE ORE-THERMAL FURNACE

Analysis of recent research and publications. Problematic issues of theory and technology of production of ferroalloys, improvement of structures of ore-thermal electric furnaces, optimization of electric modes of melting are constantly discussed at the relevant international congresses. For a more accurate reflection of the actual physical processes occurring in the working space of the bath, it is necessary to take into account that when the mixture is heated its density changes and occurs between the phase transition.The aim of the study. The purpose of this work is to simulate the process of transition of the charge in the melt, with the subsequent possibility of more accurate determination of some its parameters in the dynamics.Presentation of the main research material. Bath OTF is complex in its structure. It contains a mixture of various physical and chemical conditions (from solid pieces to doughy magma), slag and metal. The physical processes that take place are very different. Some of them are continuous, and others, which are carried out before full melting of single-loaded materials.In order to simulate the process of formation of a melt in a bath of an ore-thermal furnace it is proposed to break its inner space into elementary volumes. We have chosen and slightly modified the method based on the system of cylindrical coordinates, according to which the furnace bath is regarded as a cylinder. We will place further calculation points in the geometric centers of these volumes.The transition of the charge from the solid to the liquid phase is determined by the temperature at which the melting of different types of ferroalloys occurs. If this is the case, knowing the mass and density of the liquid melt and slag at a given temperature, we calculate their real volume, obtained as a result of these phase transitions, in one elementary volume. Thereafter, the total melt volume and charge formed over a given period of time is calculated.During the phase transition, the charge is converted into a melt and slag resulting in its settling down to the bottom of the ore-thermal furnace bath. The maximum permissible amount of charge settling near the electrodes is strictly regulated by the technical documentation of the furnace, so if the calculated value has reached this value, the charge of the charge under the electrodes should be made.It is also possible to compare the calculated volume of the formed melt over the melting interval with its predetermined value. If these indicators are already the same, then it is necessary to merge the melt and slag, otherwise we go to the next period of time and perform these calculations until the specified condition is fulfilled.Conclusions. With a comprehensive approach to the process of modeling the operation of OTF, one of the tasks is to determine the amount of molten metal in the bottom of the bath. This question is solved by the presented methodology and algorithm, which give an opportunity to find out how much melt there is at one or another time during the operation of the furnace.

Safety and efficacy of one week oral steroid therapy in the treatment of common eczemas with emphasis on its effect on hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis: An open label randomized controlled pilot study

Introduction: Oral steroids are not commonly used because of fear of side effects. A study was conducted to find out if a short course of 1 week of oral steroid without tapering is effective and safe for the treatment of common eczemas. Materials and Methods: Patients with common eczemas were included in the study. There were five groups. One group each received tablet prednisolone 15 mg morning and 10 mg after dinner for 7 days, tablet methylprednisolone 16 mg morning and 8 mg night for 7 days, and tablet betamethasone 2 mg morning and 1 mg night for 7 days. One group received tablet betamethasone 3 mg once a day as a single morning dose for 7 days and the last group received tablet deflazacort 18 mg morning and 12 mg night for 7 days only. All the patients also received topical clobetasol propionate cream for 1 month. However, the maximum permissible amount of topical clobetasol propionate was 30 g in a month. Basal serum cortisol at 8 am along with ACTH stimulation test was carried out in all the patients on day 10th. The tests were repeated on 30th day if negative on day 10th. Results: In all groups, rapid improvement was seen at visit 2, which further continued at visit 3. No suppressive effect on hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis was seen. Conclusion: A short course of oral steroid of 25 mg of prednisolone equivalent for a period of 7 days was found to be effective and safe, and 7 days of oral steroids do not need tapering.

A preliminary study of simultaneous veterinary drug and pesticide residues in eggs produced in organic and cage-free alternative systems using LC-MS/MS.

In this study, a preliminary food quality and safety assessment was performed on organic and cage-free egg samples marketed in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, that were analyzed concerning veterinary drug and pesticide residues using high performance and ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The polyether ionophore salinomycin was detected in two organic egg samples (25% of the organic samples), one with an estimated concentration even higher than the maximum permissible amount of 3µgkg-1 established for conventional eggs by the European Commission. The other sample presented a concentration higher than the limit of detection of 0.3µgkg-1, but lower than the lowest calibration level of 1.5µgkg-1. Regarding pesticide residues, spiroxamine, pirimiphos, mephosfolan and pyraclostrobin were identified at residual levels below the lowest calibration level of 4.5µgkg-1, except for one organic egg sample, presenting 8.3µgkg-1 of spiroxamine. Spiroxamine was identified in 62% of the assessed samples. These findings indicate that non-conformities were found even with a limited number of samples, impacting the confidence in the quality of organic and cage-free alternative systems in egg production. The hazard index (HI) approach demonstrated that chemical food safety might be at risk, since a mixture of the detected analytes may pose a risk for children up to 27kg, through egg consumption.

Assessing the Committed Effective Dose From 226Ra in Thermal Spring Water From San Diego De Alcala, Chihuahua, Mexico.

The oral administration of mineral-rich spring water is known as hydropinic treatment and is used to treat certain ailments. Health benefits are attributed to thermal spring water containing radioactive elements such as radium; this has popularized use of such radioactive water in various parts of the world, causing those who ingest it to increase their internal radiation dose. The goal of this study was to assess the activity concentrations of Ra present in the thermal spring waters of San Diego de Alcala, in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico, and to estimate the health risk posed to patients by the effective dose received from ingesting this water during hydropinic treatments. Water samples were taken from different areas of the San Diego de Alcala thermal springs, and pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, and total dissolved solids were measured. The Ra activity concentrations were measured with a liquid scintillation counter. The activity concentrations of Ra in sampled water varied from 125 to 452 mBq L with an average of 276 ± 40 mBq L. The committed effective dose from each of the Ra activity concentrations found in samples ranged from 9.80 × 10 to 4.0 × 10 mSv for hydropinic treatments being carried out in San Diego de Alcala thermal spring spas. Different treatments had different intake rates (200, 600, 1,000, and 1,500 mL d) and occurred over periods of 2 or 3 wk. According to the guidelines of the US Environmental Protection Agency, the maximum permissible amount of radium in drinking water is 185 mBq L; the Ra content in most of the collected samples exceeded this limit. The committed effective doses varied with Ra concentration and intake rate; none exceeded the World Health Organization's reference dose for drinking water of 0.1 mSv y, which is the maximum amount to which the population should be exposed.

Организация мониторинга лесных почв

The impact of productive activity of human on the ecological balance of nature. Ecological functions of soils of forest biogeocenoses. Regional features of the ecosystems functioning, soil formation factors. Organization of the soil cover state monitoring. Environmental monitoring of forest soils. Objectives of soil monitoring of forest ecosystems. Collection of the available information on forest ecosystems. Choice of monitoring objects. Soil and environmental hospitals. Fixed trial areas. Long-term and seasonal observations of soil properties. Temporary trial areas. Soil monitoring on the route courses. The use of satellite imagery in the environmental assessment of erosive landscapes. Controlled soil indicators. Research methods of soil properties and composition of pollutants. Processing of experimental data using information technology. Mathematical models of the spread of pollutants, the interrelation between soil indicators (in the soil), between soil properties and indicators of the characteristic of forest, the evolution of forest soil. Small-scale and medium-scale regional maps of land erosion, soil contamination by chemicals. Large-scale maps of physical degradation of soils, the content of macronutrients and micronutrients, acidity, humus condition of soils. Maps are accompanied by an explanatory note (soil sketch). Maximum permissible amount of the chemicals (maximum allowable concentrations) polluting the soil. Maximum permissible loading on forest soils under anthropogenic impact. Rational use and protection of forest ecosystems.

Degradation and dissipation of the veterinary ionophore lasalocid in manure and soil

Lasalocid is a veterinary ionophore antibiotic used for prevention and treatment of coccidiosis in poultry. It is excreted from the treated animals mostly in its active form and enters the environment with the use of contaminated manure on agricultural land. To properly assess the risk that lasalocid poses to the environment, it is necessary to know its environmental concentrations as well as the rates of its degradation in manure and dissipation in soil. These values are still largely unknown. A research was undertaken to ascertain the rate of lasalocid degradation in manure under different storage conditions (aging in a pile or composting) and on agricultural soil after using lasalocid-contaminated manure. The results have shown that there is considerable difference in lasalocid degradation between aging manure with no treatment (t1/2=61.8±1.7d) and composting (t1/2=17.5±0.8d). Half-lives in soil are much shorter (on average 3.1±0.4d). On the basis of the measured concentrations of lasalocid in soil after manure application, we can conclude that it can potentially be harmful to soil organisms (PEC/PNEC ratio of 1.18), but only in a worst-case scenario of using the maximum permissible amount of manure and immediately after application. To make certain that no harmful effects occur, composting is recommended.

Concentrations of Formaldehyde in new Danish Residential Buildings in Relation to WHO Recommendations and CEN Requirements

It is uncertain if current Danish legislation regarding emission of formaldehyde from wood-based panels could assure that concentrations of formaldehyde in the indoor air of buildings containing the material would meet the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline. This is of particular concern since the recent recognition by International Agency for Research on Cancer that formaldehyde is carcinogenic to humans. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine whether residents of newly built Danish residential houses could be exposed to safe levels of formaldehyde. Geometric mean concentration of formaldehyde measured in 20 residential buildings was 0.04 mg m−3. Formaldehyde concentrations in two buildings (10%) exceeded the WHO guideline value. In order to explain the relatively high concentrations, a second phase was performed. The aim was to identify the significant formaldehyde sources and to discuss the source strength in relation to field measurements and WHO guidelines. The results showed wide differences between the materials tested, but all steady-state concentrations were below the European standard requirement for class E1. These measurements formed the basis for model calculations of possible resulting concentrations in residential rooms, suggesting that indoor concentrations above the WHO maximum limit could occur. The calculations applied a worst case scenario with all surfaces covered with materials emitting the maximum permissible amount of formaldehyde show indoor concentrations as high as 0.6 mg m−3.

Toxicological hazards of mercurial paints.

Abstract The toxicological hazards of ingestion of mercury by absorption through the skin from mercurial ointments and through the lungs from mercury laden air are reviewed. Mice living for 6 months in cages painted with antifungal mercurial paints show no significant Hg levels in the kidneys, liver, lung or spleen. From this it is inferred that no toxic hazard to humans working in rooms treated with these mercurial paints should result. Using the literature figure of 100 μg. Hg/c.m. of air as the upper safe limit for continuous exposure of man for 8 hours per day and assuming that 25 per cent of the inhaled mercury is absorbed it has been deduced that the maximum safe continuous peroral intake of mercury is 1·3 μg./kg./day. This figure should assist in deciding the maximum permissible amount of mercury salts in food and drinking water. Guinea pigs have been given 150 times this dose daily for 6 months and found to remain in perfect health. The hazard arising from the possibility of contamination of foodstuffs by flaking of an antifungal mercurial paint is thought to be negligible.

The Maximum Permissible Amount of Nitrogen Input into an Andisol Upland Field in Abashiri Area Assessed by Percolate Nitrate Concentrations

The Maximum Permissible Amount of Nitrogen Input into an Andisol Upland Field in Abashiri Area Assessed by Percolate Nitrate Concentrations

The Precise Management Meaning of a Shadow Price

A shadow price of a resource constraint in linear programming is usually defined as the maximum price which should be paid to obtain an additional unit of resource. This definition, however, is imprecise and could lead to incorrect decisions. Because a shadow price already incorporates variable costs involved in the addition of the extra resource unit, shadow price should be defined as the maximum permissible amount of those costs involved in the addition which have not been included in the per-unit contributions of the basic decision variables. This note provides the precise meaning of a shadow price, together with examples of its use in a decision context.