Maximum Bubble Pressure Research Articles

Surdat: Database of physical properties of lead-free solders

The results of investigations, carried out since 1998, of surface tension by the maximum bubble pressure method, and of density by the dilatometric method for pure metals, binary and multicomponent systems have been used to create an electronic database SURDAT of materials for lead-free solders. The database enables also to compare the experimental data of surface tension with the values calculated from Butler's relation and with the literature data of other authors. The base was published at the beginning of the year 2007 as a monograph including the installation program and may by obtained free from the website www.imim.pl. The present version of the SURDAT database will be introduced on the website of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) together with the new version of Lead-Free Solders base elaborated by NIST. The work on the database is continued. The SURDAT database will be supplemented with new data of surface tension and density for systems already available in the base as well as for new systems and it will be extended by including the results of meniscographic investigations. In the paper there has been offered the instruction for preparing the data for the authors of studies who would like to present the results of their experimental investigations in the SURDAT database.

Interfacial properties of coffee-based beverages

The coffee brewing technique enhances several surface phenomena such as foam and emulsion formation and stabilisation. Recently the authors have been investigated the possibility to study the different contribution of the components of commercially available coffees well known as arabica and robusta. In the present work, dynamic experimental techniques such as maximum bubble pressure and contact angle have been used to characterise the air- coffee beverage interface at two different temperatures (20 °C and 37 °C). Different coffee-based beverage have been investigated ranging from espresso to soluble coffee. Beverage samples at different brewing times and methods have been prepared following standard procedures by using commercially relevant varieties and products. The role of the chemical components on tensiometric behaviour of the beverage is discussed. This behaviour is definitely related to the good wetting properties of the beverage on oral mucosa.

Synthesis, characterization and properties of geminal imidazolium ionic liquids

A novel geminal imidazolium ionic liquid with long hydrocarbon group, 1,4-bis(3-tetradecylimidazolium-1-yl) butane bromide was synthesized and its physicochemical properties were studied. To differentiate the novel ionic liquid with conventional ionic liquid, 1- n-tetradecyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide was also synthesized and their properties were compared. FT-IR, 1H NMR and elemental analysis were applied to identify the molecular structure of two compounds, then the crystal structures was investigate by the X-ray diffraction (XRD). Thermal properties of them were studied with thermogravimetry (TG) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Critical micelle concentration (CMC) and surface tension of two compounds in aqueous solution were determined by maximum bubble pressure method. In this work, we also measured the water content in two compounds by using IR moisture meters, and polarity was studied by the solubility in a series of organic solvents. The results show that the new geminal imidazolium ionic liquid possesses higher thermal stability, lower CMC values and larger d-spacing of crystal structure than corresponding ionic liquid with single long chain.

Dynamic Surface Tension and Adsorption Mechanism of Surfactant Benzyltrimethylammonium Bromide at the Air/Water Interface

The air‐solution equilibrium tension, γc and dynamic surface tension, γt, of aqueous solutions of a novel ionic surfactant benzyltrimethylammonium bromide (BTAB) were measured by Wilhelmy method and Maximum bubble pressure method (MBPM), respectively. Adsorption equilibrium and mechanism of BTAB at the air‐solution interface were studied. The CMC was determined to be 0.11 mol/L. The results show that at the start, the adsorption process is controlled by a diffusion step. Toward the end, it changes to a mixed kinetic‐diffusion controlled mechanism with the adsorption activation energy of about 11.0 KJ/mol. Effects of temperature, inorganic salts, and alcohols on adsorption kinetics also are discussed.

The interface effect of carbon nanotube suspension on the thermal performance of a two-phase closed thermosyphon

An aqueous solution of carbon nanotubes, treated by a concentrated nitric/sulfuric acid mixture to disentangle the nanotubes, was utilized as the working medium in a two-phase closed thermosyphon to investigate its performance. In comparison with the thermosyphon filled with a distilled water medium, the one filled with carbon nanotube suspension has a high evaporation section wall temperature, incipience temperature, and excursion, as well as thermal resistance. The carbon nantotubes’ nanofluid deteriorates the performance of the gravity-assisted heat pipe. Measurements employing the maximum bubble pressure method demonstrate that suspending carbon nanotubes in bulk water gives rise to increased surface tension. In addition, the contact angle of suspension obtained with the sessile drop method on a copper plate is much smaller than that of water. Alterations of solid-liquid-vapor interfacial properties, arising from the addition of carbon nanotubes, change the boiling mechanism and thus deteriorate the boiling heat transfer.

Dynamic Behavior of Surfactants in Solution

Adsorption of various surfactants at the gas liquid interface is studied with equilibrium and dynamic surface tension measurements. The Wilhelmey plate method and maximum bubble pressure method are used for this study. Dynamic surface tension of solutions of different surfactants, sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), polyoxyethylene glycol 4‐tert‐octyl phenyl ether (Triton X 100), poly‐oxyethylene(20) cetyl ether (Brij 58), and tetraethylene glycol mono‐n‐dodecyl ether (Brij 30), is measured at different concentrations. Adsorption of different surfactants is compared on the basis of equilibrium and dynamic behavior. Effectiveness and efficiency of different surfactants is found from equilibrium surface tension measurement. A new parameter is defined to quantify the dynamic behavior of adsorption, which gives the concentration of surfactant needed to reduce surface tension to half of its maximum reduction within a defined time available for adsorption. The dynamics of surfactant solution is quantified by using this parameter.

Dynamic capillary pressure measurements in the short time range by applying a fast growing drop technique

The capillary pressure technique is the method of choice for any tensiometry measurements in microgravity, as all bubbles and drops have a spherical shape. A combination of fast drop formation based on a known constant liquid flow and fast data acquisition of measured capillary pressure gives access to dynamic interfacial tensions in the range of milliseconds. Also the maximum drop pressure method, an equivalent to the maximum bubble pressure technique as fastest dynamic surface tension method, can be practised by the same set-up. The technique was developed already 15 years ago [ii] and now further refined during the MAP FASES* supported by the European Space Agency [ii]. Besides a detailed description of the technical parameters, experimental results for emulsion relevant systems are presented. The set-up presented here is based on a commercial drop and bubble profile analysis tensiometer which appears to be a kind of in-situ technique for membrane emulsification processes. The instrumental set-up is suitable also for oscillating drop and bubble experiments up to frequencies of several hundreds Hz.

Effect of Micelles on the Dynamic Surface Tension of Zwitterionic Surfactants

Abstract The dynamic surface tension of micellar surfactant solutions was measured using the maximum bubble pressure method. The chosen surfactants were carboxy- and sulfo-betaines. At the beginning, surface tension decay curves are consistent with a diffusion-controlled adsorption. However, at long times these curves were analyzed by using the Fainerman model. From these experiments, the rate constants for demicellization were obtained. The micelle dissociation rate constant depends of the surfactant concentration, the concentration dependence is interpreted by Aniansson's theory, and the micelle dissociation constant independent of surfactant concentration was calculated. The rate constants found in this work are of the same order of magnitude as those obtained using classical techniques for fast reactions.

Diffusion-controlled adsorption kinetics of aqueous submicellar and micellar solution at air/solution interface in the limit of short time

The equilibrium surface tensionsγ eq of aqueous Pentaethylenglycol-monododecylether (C12E5) solutions at temperature 25 °C were measured by means of Wilhelmy plate method and the determined critical micelle concentration (cmc) is 6.8 x 10-2 mol·m-3. To study adsorption kinetics of aqueous submicellar and micellar solutions, the dynamic surface tensionsγ(t) were measured by means of maximal bubble pressure method. Using the derived equations of adsorption kinetics for submicellar and micellar solutions, the experimental data were analyzed and the adsorption kinetics was studied. For micellar solution (c0>cmc) of C12E5, the demicellization constant $$\overset{\lower0.5em\hbox{$\smash{\scriptscriptstyle\leftarrow}$}}{k} $$ was calculated.

Application of the maximum bubble pressure technique for dynamic surface tension studies of surfactant solutions using the Sugden two-capillary method

Exact knowledge of the dead time as part of the bubble lifetime in the maximum bubble pressure method is an important prerequisite for accurate dynamic surface tension measurements. The duration of the dead time depends essentially on the capillary geometry and affects significantly the measured surface tensions of concentrated surfactant solutions. Increase of the dead time leads to a significant surface tension decrease of a freshly formed bubble surface due to the significantly higher residual adsorption of the surfactant molecules. It is shown that correct dynamic surface tensions are obtained with the experimental procedure of Sugden's method only when in addition to the fixed frequency of bubble formation, also the dead time values for the two capillaries are kept constant.

Maximum Bubble Pressure Method: Universal Surface Age and Transport Mechanisms in Surfactant Solutions

Here, based on the theoretical analysis of results for two ionic surfactants, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and dodecyl trimethylammonium bromide (DTAB), we develop a new approach for quantitative interpretation of data from the maximum bubble pressure method. A given tensiometer is characterized by an apparatus function, A(t), and by an apparatus constant. The former represents the time dependence of the bubble surface area, whereas the latter is expressed through integrals of A(t). The experiment indicates that both of them are independent of the surfactant type and concentration. Moreover, if a certain criterion is satisfied, the experimental results depend on the surface dilatation only through the apparatus constant. This makes the data interpretation much easier. The knowledge of the apparatus constant gives a general time scale (universal surface age) that makes the results independent of the specific bubble-pressure setup and produces dynamic surface tension curves that are universal characteristics of the investigated solutions. A new equation for data processing is proposed, which provides excellent fits of the dynamic surface tension. In the case of micellar solutions, the data analysis enables one to identify the kinetic regime of adsorption (among four possible regimes). For the investigated surfactant solutions, the diffusion regime "BC" was identified, for which the fast micellar process is equilibrated, whereas the slow micellar process is negligible. Upgraded with the developed approach for quantitative data interpretation, the bubble-pressure tensiometry could be a useful tool for a detailed analysis of the adsorption processes in more complex systems.

Density and Surface Tension of the System KF–K2TaF7–Ta2O5

The density of the system KF–K2TaF7–Ta2O5 was measured by the Archimedean method and the surface tension by the maximum bubble pressure method in the composition range up to 20 mol% Ta2O5. The density in the system KF–K2TaF7–Ta2O5 increases from KF through K2TaF7 to Ta2O5 and the surface tension increases from K2TaF7 through KF to Ta2O5. Based on the measured density values, the molar volumes of the binary and ternary melts at 860 °C, 900 °C and 950 °C were calculated as well as the partial molar volumes of particular components in different binaries. The small negative deviation from ideal behaviour in the binary system KF–K2TaF7 was identified by the calculation of the molar excess volume. The formation of complex anions [TaF8]3− is expected in this binary system. The surface tension decreases monotonically from KF to K2TaF7 in the binary system KF–K2TaF7. In the next two binaries KF–Ta2O5 and K2TaF7–Ta2O5 decrease of the surface tension was observed with the initial addition of Ta2O5 followed by the increase of the surface tension by further addition of Ta2O5. Based on measured data it was concluded that in binaries KF–Ta2O5 and K2TaF7–Ta2O5 the surface active component is Ta2O5 and in the binary KF–K2TaF7 the surface active component is K2TaF7. Mathematical description of the concentration dependence of the molar volume and surface tension of the measured ternary system was done by the polynomial function at 860°C, 900°C, and at 950°C.

Surface Tension of the System NaF –AlF3–Al2O3 and Surface Adsorption of Al2O3

Part of the molten system NaF-AlF3-Al2O3 was studied by surface tension measurements, which were performed at cryolite ratios (CR) between 1.5 and 3 [CR = n(NaF)/n(AlF3)]. The maximal bubble pressure method was applied. The surface adsorption of alumina (Al2O3) was also calculated. The obtained results were discussed in terms of the anionic composition of the melt. The addition of AlF3 to melt with CR= 3 decreases the surface tension, as AlF3 is surface-active in molten Na3AlF6. The concentration dependence of the surface tension and the surface adsorption of alumina in the title system are influenced by the formation of surface-active oxofluoroaluminates. An increase of the difference between the surface tension of NaF-AlF3 mixtures and the surface tension of pure alumina was observed with decreasing cryolite ratio.

Influence of electrolytes on the dynamic surface tension of ionic surfactant solutions: Expanding and immobile interfaces

Here, we derive analytical asymptotic expressions for the dynamic surface tension of ionic surfactant solutions in the general case of nonstationary interfacial expansion. Because the diffusion layer is much wider than the electric double layer, the equations contain a small parameter. The resulting perturbation problem is singular and it is solved by means of the method of matched asymptotic expansions. The derived general expression for the dynamic surface tension is simplified for the special case of immobile interface and for the maximum bubble pressure method (MBPM). The case of stationary interfacial expansion is also considered. The effective diffusivity of the ionic surfactant essentially depends on the concentrations of surfactant and nonamphiphilic salt. To test the theory, the derived equations are applied to calculate the surfactant adsorption from MBPM experimental data. The results excellently agree with the adsorption determined independently from equilibrium surface-tension isotherms. The derived theoretical expressions could find application for interpreting data obtained by MBPM and other experimental methods for investigating interfacial dynamics.

Pb-Free solders: Part II. Application of ADAMIS database in modeling of Sn−Ag−Cu alloys with Bi additions

The ADAMIS database was used for calculation of the surface tension of the quaternary Sn−Ag−Cu−Bi liquid alloys by Butler's model. The resultant data were compared with those from the maximum bubble pressure measurements from Part I. The same thermodynamic database was next applied for the calculation of various phase equilibria. It was established that the Bi addition to the ternary Sn−Ag−Cu alloys (Sn-2.6Ag-0.46Cu and Sn-3.13Ag-0.74Cu in at.%; Sn-2.56Ag-0.26 Cu and Sn-2.86Ag-O.40Cu in mass%) causes lowering of the melting temperature and the surface tension to make the tested alloys closer to, traditional Sn−Pb solders. The simulation of the solidification by Scheil's model showed that the alloys with the higher Bi concentration are characterized by the lifting-off failure due to the segregation of Bi at the solder/substrate boundary. Thus, in modeling of new Pb-free solders, a compromise among various properties should be taken into consideration.

Dynamic adsorption of opposite-charged Gemini surfactant mixture at air/water interface

Dynamic surface tension (DST) of the mixed aqueous solution of opposite-charged gemini surfactants C9 pPHCNa with C 10-2-E 2-C 10·2Br was measured using the maximum bubble pressure technique. The mole fraction of C9 pPHCNa ( α 1, on a surfactant-only basis) in the bulk solution was from 1 to 0.6. Plateaus were observed in the DST curves of the mixtures at total concentration of 0.8 mmol L −1 except the case with α 1 = 0.6. This was attributed to the C 10-2-E 2-C 10 2+/C9 pPHC 2− ion-pairs with high surface activity adsorbing significantly, which led to desorption of the monomer molecules already at the surface. The micelles in the solution also affected the dynamic adsorption since all the investigated concentrations of mixed systems were above their cmcs. Dissociation of micelles offered both the monomers and the ion-pairs to adsorb at the surface, resulting in the DST curve moving down when the total concentration of the system was increased.

Dynamic surface tension of stable air-filled microbubbles prepared by freeze-drying a solution of lipid/surfactant mixture

We studied the equilibrium and dynamic adsorption properties of the suspension solutions prepared from a mixture of l-α-dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), dicetyl phosphate (DCP), and Tyloxapol. Freeze-drying of suspension solutions significantly affects the dynamic behavior of DPPC, DCP, and Tyloxapol molecules at the air–water interface. Short time and long-time adsorption data obtained by maximum bubble pressure method show that Tyloxapol in a freeze-dried sample is preferentially adsorbed at the air–water interface, and a self-assembled structure in a freeze-dried sample (microbubble-rich) is much more stable than that of a non-freeze-dried sample (liposome-rich).

Influence of Sb additions on surface tension and density of Sn–Sb, Sn–Ag–Sb andSn–Ag–Cu–Sb alloys: Experiment vs. modeling

Abstract Surface tension and density measurements by maximum bubble pressure and dilatometric techniques were carried out in an extensive range of temperature on liquid alloys close to the ternary eutectic Sn3.3Ag0.76Cu with different Sb content. It has been found that the addition of Sb to Sn, Sn–Sb, to binary eutectic Sn–Ag and to Sn3.3Ag0.76Cu decreases the surface tension and density. The values of the surface tension calculated by the Butler model and by the method based on the binary alloys surface tension data with the ternary and quaternary correction factors were compared with the experimental results. The best agreement between the measured and the calculated values was observed for the model comprising the binary data with the correction factors.

Density and surface tension of the systems CaO-FeO-Fe2O3-MgO, CaO-FeO-Fe2O3-ZnO and CaO-Fe2O3-Cu2O

AbstractThe density and surface tension of melts of the systems CaO-FeO-Fe2O3 MgO at the temperature 1623 K, CaO-FeO-Fe2O3-ZnO at 1573 K, and CaO-Fe2O3-Cu2O at 1573 K were determined using the maximum bubble pressure method. The molar volume, the excess molar volume, and the excess surface tension were calculated on the basis of the obtained data. From these properties information on the interactions of components and possible chemical reactions between them was obtained. Due to the absence of silica and the low concentration of other network-forming oxides, only isolated FeO45− tetrahedra and the CaO·FeO ionic pairs are formed in these basic melts, the donor of the oxygen atoms being either CaO, FeO, or both CaO+FeO oxides. Even the observed ternary interactions may be attributed to the formation of the anions FeO45− only.

Adsorption dynamics of binary mixture of Gemini surfactant and opposite-charged conventional surfactant in aqueous solution

The maximum bubble pressure technique has been used to study the adsorption kinetics of binary mixtures of an anionic Gemini surfactant C9 pPHCNa with a cationic conventional surfactant C 10TABr in aqueous solutions. The dynamic surface tension data were analyzed using the revised Ward and Tordai equations as well as the micelle dissociation kinetic model suggested by Joos et al. The apparent diffusion coefficient D a below the cmc, the adsorption barrier ε a and the micelle dissociation constant k mic were obtained. The D a s at short times and at long times were respectively 0.2 – 16 × 10 10 and 0.08 – 0.9 × 10 10 m 2 s −1 , the latter corresponded to the adsorption barrier ε a of 10–20 kJ mol −1. The minimum ε a appeared at the mole fraction of C9 pPHCNa ( α 1 , on a surfactant-only basis) in the bulk solution being 0.33. The k mic s of the mixed micelles were about 16–2300 s −1. The most stable mixed micelles were formed at α 1 = 0.2 rather than at α 1 = 0.33 owing to great discrepancy of hydrophobicity between the two components. These results indicated that the composition of mixed solution was an important factor affecting the adsorption kinetics and the micelle stability.