Maximal Dynamic Strength Research Articles

Effects of Strength and Power Training on Neuromuscular Adaptations and Jumping Movement Pattern and Performance

This study aimed at comparing the effects of strength and power training (ST and PT) regimens on neuromuscular adaptations and changes on vertical jump performance, kinetics, and kinematics parameters. Forty physically active men (178.2 ± 7.0 cm; 75.1 ± 8.6 kg; 23.6 ± 3.5 years) with at least 2 years of ST experience were assigned to an ST (n = 14), a PT (n = 14), or a control group (C; n = 12). The training programs were performed during 8 weeks, 3 times per week. Dynamic and isometric maximum strength, cross-sectional area, and muscle activation were assessed before and after the experimental period. Squat jump (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ) performance, kinetics, and kinematics parameters were also assessed. Dynamic maximum strength increased similarly (p < 0.05) for the ST (22.8%) and PT (16.6%) groups. The maximum voluntary isometric contraction increased for the ST and PT groups (p < 0.05) in the posttraining assessments. There was a main time effect for muscle fiber cross-sectional area (p < 0.05), but there were no changes in muscle activation. The SJ height increased, after ST and PT, because of a faster concentric phase and a higher rate of force development (p < 0.05). The CMJ height increased only after PT (p < 0.05), but there were no significant changes in its kinetics and kinematics parameters. In conclusion, neuromuscular adaptations were similar between the training groups. The PT seemed more effective than the ST in increasing jumping performance, but neither the ST nor the PT was able to affect the SJ and the CMJ movement pattern (e.g., timing and sequencing of joint extension initiation).

Influence of Squatting Depth on Jumping Performance

It is unclear if increases in 1 repetition maximum (1RM) in quarter squats result in higher gains compared with full depth squats in isometric force production and vertical jump performance. The aim of the research projects was to compare the effects of different squat variants on the development of 1RM and their transfer effects to Countermovement jump (CMJ) and squat jump (SJ) height, maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), and maximal rate of force development (MRFD). Twenty-three women and 36 men (mean age: 24.11 ± 2.88 years) were parallelized into 3 groups based on their CMJ height: deep front squats (FSQ, n = 20), deep back squats (BSQ, n = 20), and quarter back squats (BSQ¼, n = 19). In addition, a control group (C, n = 16) existed (mean age: 24.38 ± 0.50 years). Experimental groups trained 2 d·wk for 10 weeks with a strength-power block periodization, which produced significant (p ≤ 0.05) gains of the specific squat 1RM. The FSQ and BSQ attained significant (p ≤ 0.05) elevations in SJ and CMJ without any interaction effects between both groups (p ≥ 0.05). The BSQ¼ and C did not reveal any significant changes of SJ and CMJ. The FSQ and BSQ had significantly higher SJ scores over C (p ≤ 0.05). The BSQ did not feature any significant group difference to BSQ¼ (p = 0.116) in SJ, whereas FSQ showed a trend toward higher SJ heights over BSQ¼ (p = 0.052). The FSQ and BSQ presented significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher CMJ heights over BSQ¼ and C. Posttest in MVC and MRFD demonstrated no significant changes for BSQ. Significant declines in MRFD for FSQ in the right leg (p ≤ 0.05) without any interaction effects for MVC and MRFD between both FSQ and BSQ were found. Training of BSQ¼ resulted in significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower MRFD and MVC values in contrast to FSQ and BSQ. Quarter squat training elicited significant (p ≤ 0.05) transfer losses into the isometric maximal and explosive strength behavior. These findings therefore contest the concept of superior angle-specific transfer effects. Deep front and back squats guarantee performance-enhancing transfer effects of dynamic maximal strength to dynamic speed-strength capacity of hip and knee extensors compared with quarter squats.

Maximal Strength, Number of Repetitions, and Total Volume Are Differently Affected by Static-, Ballistic-, and Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Stretching

Stretching exercises have been traditionally incorporated into warm-up routines before training sessions and sport events. However, the effects of stretching on maximal strength and strength endurance performance seem to depend on the type of stretching employed. The objective of this study was to compare the effects of static stretching (SS), ballistic stretching (BS), and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching on maximal strength, number of repetitions at a submaximal load, and total volume (i.e., number of repetitions × external load) in a multiple-set resistance training bout. Twelve strength-trained men (20.4 ± 4.5 years, 67.9 ± 6.3 kg, 173.3 ± 8.5 cm) volunteered to participate in this study. All of the subjects completed 8 experimental sessions. Four experimental sessions were designed to test maximal strength in the leg press (i.e., 1 repetition maximum [1RM]) after each stretching condition (SS, BS, PNF, or no-stretching [NS]). During the other 4 sessions, the number of repetitions performed at 80% 1RM was assessed after each stretching condition. All of the stretching protocols significantly improved the range of motion in the sit-and-reach test when compared with NS. Further, PNF induced greater changes in the sit-and-reach test than BS did (4.7 ± 1.6, 2.9 ± 1.5, and 1.9 ± 1.4 cm for PNF, SS, and BS, respectively). Leg press 1RM values were decreased only after the PNF condition (5.5%, p < 0.001). All the stretching protocols significantly reduced the number of repetitions (SS: 20.8%, p < 0.001; BS: 17.8%, p = 0.01; PNF: 22.7%, p < 0.001) and total volume (SS: 20.4%, p < 0.001; BS: 17.9%, p = 0.01; PNF: 22.4%, p < 0.001) when compared with NS. The results from this study suggest that, to avoid a decrease in both the number of repetitions and total volume, stretching exercises should not be performed before a resistance training session. Additionally, strength-trained individuals may experience reduced maximal dynamic strength after PNF stretching.

Effects of resisted physical training on muscle strength gain, body composition and metabolic repercussions in women with polycystic ovary syndrome

Analyze muscle strength (MS) gain, body composition (BC) and the metabolic changes in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) after linear periodization of resisted physical training (RPT). Experimental study. 39 volunteers sedentary, who did not smoke or use any hormonal medications, aged 18 to 37 years, with BMI of 18 to 39.9 kg/m2, were divided in PCOS group (n=20) and control (CO) (n=19). After a period of adaptation, all volunteers were submitted to RPT for 16 weeks. Before and after RPT, handgrip isometric strength (HIS) tests were performed with dynamometer and 1RM maximum dynamic strength tests of trunk and lower and upper limbs were performed in the Bench press (BP), Leg extension (LE) and Arm Curl (AC) exercises. We determined serum total testosterone, SHBG, FAI, fasting insulin and glucose and HOMA index, lipid profile, characterization of the menstrual cycle and BC evaluated by DXA. Data were analyzed statistically by mixed effects linear regression. The results are reported as mean±standard deviation. The level of significance was set at P<0.05. After RPT, an increase in MS was observed in both groups, with the PCOS group showing the greater gain: HIS of the dominant limb (5079.61 × 5501.44, P=0.03), BP (31.20±4.75 × 40.00±5.61, P<0.01), LE (27.90±6.23 × 37.50±7.56, P<0.01), AC (19.07±3.40 × 23.35±4.00, P=0.01). Testosterone levels were reduced in the PCOS group (87ng/dl x 67ng/dl, P=0.01). The remaining variables did not change after RPT. Nine PCOS volunteers with amenorrhea presented menstrual bleeding. In the BC, the lean mass/height ratio in the DXA was higher in the PCOS group (PCOS 18.67±3.28 x CO 15.36±1.76, P=0.01). Comparing to CO, in short-time RPT, PCOS women gained more MS and lean mass. Although both groups did not present changes in glucide and lipid metabolism, PCOS women presented a decrease in testosterone levels and a return of menstrual cycle.

Power output in vertical jumps: does optimum loading depend on activity profiles?

The previously proposed maximum dynamic output hypothesis (MDO: i.e. the optimum load for maximizing the power output during jumping is one's own body) was tested on individuals of various activity profiles. Forty males (10 strength-trained athletes, 10 speed-trained athletes, 10 physically active non-athletes, and 10 sedentary individuals) performed different vertical jumps on a force plate while a pulley system was used to either reduce or increase the subject's body weight by 10-30 %. As expected, an increase in external loading resulted in a significant increase (p < 0.001) in force output and a concomitant decrease of peak jumping velocity in all groups of participants. The main finding, however, was that all groups revealed the maximum peak and mean power output at approximately the subjects' own body weight although their weight represented prominently different percentage of their maximum dynamic strength. While a significant (p < 0.05), albeit moderate, 'group × load' interaction in one jump was observed for the peak power output, the individual optimum load for maximizing the power output number did not differ among the groups. Although apparently further research on various types of movements is needed, the present results provide, so far, the strongest support of the MDO hypothesis.

Bioenergetics and Neuromuscular Determinants of the Time to Exhaustion at Velocity Corresponding to V[Combining Dot Above]O2max in Recreational Long-Distance Runners

The purpose of this study was to investigate the main bioenergetics and neuromuscular determinants of the time to exhaustion (T(lim)) at the velocity corresponding to maximal oxygen uptake in recreational long-distance runners. Twenty runners performed the following tests on 5 different days: (a) maximal incremental treadmill test, (b) 2 submaximal tests to determine running economy and vertical stiffness, (c) exhaustive test to measured the T(lim), (d) maximum dynamic strength test, and (e) muscle power production test. Aerobic and anaerobic energy contributions during the T(lim) test were also estimated. The stepwise multiple regression method selected 3 independent variables to explain T(lim) variance. Total energy production explained 84.1% of the shared variance (p = 0.001), whereas peak oxygen uptake (V(O2)peak) measured during T(lim)and lower limb muscle power ability accounted for the additional 10% of the shared variance (p = 0.014). These data suggest that the total energy production, V(O2)peak, and lower limb muscle power ability are the main physiological and neuromuscular determinants of T(lim)in recreational long-distance runners.

Enhancing sprint and strength performance: Combined versus maximal power, traditional heavy-resistance and plyometric training

ObjectivesThis study compares the effect of five different training stimuli on sprinting ability and strength production. DesignSixty physical education students were randomly assigned to five experimental groups: all types of training (A), full-squat (B), parallel-squat (C), loaded countermovement jumping (D) and plyometric training (E). Participants in each group trained three days a week for a total of seven weeks. MethodsSprint performance (30m), maximal dynamic strength (1RM) (kg) and velocity of displacement in the concentric phase of full-squat (m/s) were measured before and after seven weeks of training. ResultsPre-training results showed no significant differences among the groups in any of the variables tested. After seven weeks no significant improvement in sprint performance was found, however, significant improvement in maximal dynamic strength, velocity of displacement were observed in all the groups: combined methods group A (20%), heavy-resistance group B (11%), power-oriented group C (17%), ballistic group D (14%) and plyometric group E (6%). ConclusionsA combined training approach using full-squat, parallel-squat, loaded countermovement jumping and plyometric training results in a light improvement in maximal strength, velocity of displacement and sprint performance and the resemblance between movement patterns and the velocity of displacement common to the training and testing methods also contributes to greater performance improvement.

Neuromuscular adaptations during combined strength and endurance training in endurance runners: maximal versus explosive strength training or a mix of both

This study compared the effects of mixed maximal strength and explosive strength training with maximal strength training and explosive strength training combined with endurance training over an 8-week training intervention. Male subjects (age 21-45years) were divided into three strength training groups, maximal (MAX, n=11), explosive (EXP, 10) and mixed maximal and explosive (MIX, 9), and a circuit training control group, (CON, 7). Strength training one to two times a week was performed concurrently with endurance training three to four times a week. Significant increases in maximal dynamic strength (1RM), countermovement jump (CMJ), maximal muscle activation during 1RM in MAX and during CMJ in EXP, peak running speed (S (peak)) and running speed at respiratory compensation threshold (RCT(speed)) were observed in MAX, EXP and MIX. Maximal isometric strength and muscle activation, rate of force development (RFD), maximal oxygen uptake [Formula: see text] and running economy (RE) at 10 and 12kmhr(-1) did not change significantly. No significant changes were observed in CON in maximal isometric strength, RFD, CMJ or muscle activation, and a significant decrease in 1RM was observed in the final 4weeks of training. RE in CON did not change significantly, but significant increases were observed in S (peak), RCT(speed) and [Formula: see text] Low volume MAX, EXP and MIX strength training combined with higher volume endurance training over an 8-week intervention produced significant gains in strength, power and endurance performance measures of S (peak) and RCT(speed), but no significant changes were observed between groups.

Effects of Strength and Power Training on Neuromuscular Variables in Older Adults

The purpose of this study was to compare the neuromuscular adaptations produced by strength-training (ST) and power-training (PT) regimens in older individuals. Participants were balanced by quadriceps cross-sectional area (CSA) and leg-press 1-repetition maximum and randomly assigned to an ST group (n = 14; 63.6 ± 4.0 yr, 79.7 ± 17.2 kg, and 163.9 ± 9.8 cm), a PT group (n = 16; 64.9 ± 3.9 yr, 63.9 ± 11.9 kg, and 157.4 ± 7.7 cm), or a control group (n = 13; 63.0 ± 4.0 yr, 67.2 ± 10.8 kg, and 159.8 ± 6.8 cm). ST and PT were equally effective in increasing (a) maximum dynamic and isometric strength (p < .05), (b) increasing quadriceps muscle CSA (p < .05), and (c) decreasing electrical mechanical delay of the vastus lateralis muscle (p < .05). There were no significant changes in neuromuscular activation after training. The novel finding of the current study is that PT seems to be an attractive alternative to regular ST to maintain and improve muscle mass.

Strength Training with Blood Flow Restriction Diminishes Myostatin Gene Expression

The aim of the study was to determine whether the similar muscle strength and hypertrophy responses observed after either low-intensity resistance exercise associated with moderate blood flow restriction or high-intensity resistance exercise are associated with similar changes in messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of selected genes involved in myostatin (MSTN) signaling. Twenty-nine physically active male subjects were divided into three groups: low-intensity (20% one-repetition maximum (1RM)) resistance training (LI) (n = 10), low-intensity resistance exercise associated with moderate blood flow restriction (LIR) (n = 10), and high-intensity (80% 1RM) resistance exercise (HI) (n = 9). All of the groups underwent an 8-wk training program. Maximal dynamic knee extension strength (1RM), quadriceps cross-sectional area (CSA), MSTN, follistatin-like related genes (follistatin (FLST), follistatin-like 3 (FLST-3)), activin IIb, growth and differentiation factor-associated serum protein 1 (GASP-1), and MAD-related protein (SMAD-7) mRNA gene expression were assessed before and after training. Knee extension 1RM significantly increased in all groups (LI = 20.7%, LIR = 40.1%, and HI = 36.2%). CSA increased in both the LIR and HI groups (6.3% and 6.1%, respectively). MSTN mRNA expression decreased in the LIR and HI groups (45% and 41%, respectively). There were no significant changes in activin IIb (P > 0.05). FLST and FLST-3 mRNA expression increased in all groups from pre- to posttest (P < 0.001). FLST-3 expression was significantly greater in the HI when compared with the LIR and LI groups at posttest (P = 0.024 and P = 0.018, respectively). GASP-1 and SMAD-7 gene expression significantly increased in both the LIR and HI groups. We concluded that LIR was able to induce gains in 1RM and quadriceps CSA similar to those observed after traditional HI. These responses may be related to the concomitant decrease in MSTN and increase in FLST isoforms, GASP-1, and SMAD-7 mRNA gene expression.

Physical Fitness Factors to Predict Female Olympic Wrestling Performance and Sex Differences

To determine differences in anthropometric, body composition, physiological and neuromuscular markers between elite and amateur female wrestlers, 35 female wrestlers were assigned into 4 groups according to their body mass (light and middle weight) and their competitive level (elite and amateur): light weight (between 49 and 58 kg) in elite (n = 6) and amateur (n = 12) levels, and middle weight (between 58 and 67 kg) in elite (n = 7) and amateur (n = 10) levels. A binary logistic regression analysis was performed to identify which variables better predict female wrestling success. Elite female wrestlers were older (8-10%), had more training experience (27-29%), fat-free mass (3%), maximum strength in absolute and allometrically scaled values (13-33%), maximal muscle power (16-34%), mean and peak power during an arm crank Wingate testing in absolute and allometrically scaled values (17-23%), jumping height (2-9%) and grip (5-13%), and back isometric strength (10-13%) compared with amateur wrestlers (p < 0.05). When the results of the present research and those of a recent study performed in our laboratory with elite male wrestlers were compared, elite women presented lower (p < 0.05) maximum isometric and dynamic strength, muscle power output, and anaerobic metabolism values even when these data were normalized using allometric methods.

Functional mobility of older adults after concentric and eccentric endurance exercise

Age-associated decline in muscle mass and strength impairs functional mobility in older adults. We examined the effects of an eccentric endurance exercise programme (downhill treadmill walking, DTW) at a self-selected walking speed (SSWS) on functional mobility and eccentric and concentric strength of m. quadriceps femoris of older adults. Twenty-four older adults (67±4years) were randomly assigned to complete 3×30min treadmill walks per week for 12weeks on a level (n=11, LTW 0%) or downhill (n=13, DTW -10%) treadmill gradient at SSWS. SSWS was re-adjusted every 4weeks. Participants were assessed for five repetition sit-to-stand (5-RSTS), maximal walking speed (MWS), timed up-and-go (TUG) and dynamic strength. SSWS was similar for both groups with increases from 1.18±0.11 to 1.53±0.09ms(-1) (LTW) and 1.26±0.16 to 1.61±0.12ms(-1) (DTW) (time, P<0.01). Improvements in 5-RSTS, MWS and TUG were substantial and similar for both groups (time, P<0.01). 5-RSTS (baseline LTW: 8.50±1.19s, DTW: 8.54±1.52s) improved by 32 and 34%. MWS (baseline LTW: 2.39±0.38ms(-1), DTW: 2.40±0.33ms(-1)) improved by 22 and 23%. TUG (baseline LTW: 5.58±0.51s, DTW: 5.46±0.89s) improved by 22% for both groups. Peak eccentric and concentric torque did not change. Knee angle of concentric peak torque (180°s(-1)) was decreased after 12weeks in both groups (LTW: 37°±16° to 26°±14°, DTW: 42°±18° to 37°±16°, P<0.05). Regular level and downhill treadmill walking by older adults, at a SSWS, results in substantial improvements in functional mobility. Changes in functional mobility were not explained by changes in dynamic strength of the m. quadriceps femoris.

Neuromuscular fatigue during dynamic maximal strength and hypertrophic resistance loadings

The purpose of this study was to compare the acute neuromuscular fatigue during dynamic maximal strength and hypertrophic loadings, known to cause different adaptations underlying strength gain during training. Thirteen healthy, untrained males performed two leg press loadings, one week apart, consisting of 15 sets of 1 repetition maximum (MAX) and 5 sets of 10 repetition maximums (HYP). Concentric load and muscle activity, electromyography (EMG) amplitude and median frequency, was assessed throughout each set. Additionally, maximal bilateral isometric force and muscle activity was assessed pre-, mid-, and up to 30min post-loading. Concentric load during MAX was decreased after set 10 (P<0.05), while the load was maintained throughout HYP. Both loadings caused large reductions in maximal isometric force (MAX=−30±6.4% vs. HYP=−48±9.7%, P<0.001). The decreased concentric and isometric strength during MAX loading was accompanied by reduced EMG amplitude (P<0.05). Conversely, hypertrophic loading caused decreased median frequency only during isometric contractions (P<0.01). During concentric contractions, EMG amplitude increased and median frequency decreased in HYP (P<0.01). Our results indicate reduced neural drive during MAX loading and more complex changes in muscle activity during HYP loading.

Interrelationships between different loads in resisted sprints, half-squat 1 RM and kinematic variables in trained athletes

Resisted sprint running is a common training method for improving sprint-specific strength. It is well-known that an athlete's time to complete a sled-towing sprint increases linearly with increasing sled load. However, to our knowledge, the relationship between the maximum load in sled-towing sprint and the sprint time is unknown, The main purpose of this research was to analyze the relationship between the maximum load in sled-towing sprint, half-squat maximal dynamic strength and the velocity in the acceleration phase in 20-m sprint. A second aim was to compare sprint performance when athletes ran under different conditions: un-resisted and towing sleds. Twenty-one participants (17.86±2.27 years; 1.77±0.06 m and 69.24±7.20 kg) completed a one repetition maximum test (1 RM) from a half-squat position (159.68±22.61 kg) and a series of sled-towing sprints with loads of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30% body mass (Bm) and the maximum resisted sprint load. No significant correlation (P<0.05) was found between half-squat 1 RM and the sprint time in different loaded conditions. Conversely, significant correlations (P<0.05) were found between maximum load in resisted sprint and sprint time (20-m sprint time, r=−0.71; 5% Bm, r=−0.73; 10% Bm, r=−0.53; 15% Bm, r=−0.55; 20% Bm, r=−0.65; 25% Bm, r=−0.44; 30% Bm, r=−0.63; MaxLoad, r= 0.93). The sprinting velocity significantly decreased by 4–22% with all load increases. Stride length (SL) also decreased (17%) significantly across all resisted conditions. In addition, there were significant differences in stride frequency (SF) with loads over 15% Bm. It could be concluded thatthe knowledge of the individual maximal load in resisted sprint and the effects on the sprinting kinematic with different loads, could be interesting to determinate the optimal load to improve the acceleration phase at sprint running.

Strength prior to endurance intra-session exercise sequence optimizes neuromuscular and cardiovascular gains in elderly men

This study investigated the effects of different intra-session exercise sequences in the cardiovascular and neuromuscular adaptations induced by concurrent training in elderly. Twenty-six healthy elderly men (64.7±4.1years), were randomly placed into two concurrent training groups: strength training prior to (SE, n=13) or after (ES, n=13) endurance training. Subjects trained strength and endurance training 3 times per week performing both exercise types in the same training session. The peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), maximum aerobic workload (Wmáx), absolute (VT1 and VT2) and relative (VT1% and VT2%) ventilatory thresholds, as well as workloads at VT1 and VT2 (WVT1 and WVT2) were evaluated during a maximal incremental test on a cycle ergometer before and after the training. In addition, muscle quality (MQ) was evaluated by the quotient between maximal dynamic strength (one repetition maximum test) of the knee extensors and the quadriceps femoris muscle thickness determined by ultrasonography. There were no modifications after training in the VT1, VT2, VT1%, and VT2%. There was significant increase in the WVT1 only in SE (P<0.05), as well as significant increase in the WVT2 in both groups (P<0.001). There was significant increase in the VO2peak, with both groups showing increases (P<0.001), with no difference between groups; as well significant increase in the Wmáx (P<0.001) with no difference between SE and ES. The force per unit of muscle mass of knee extensors increased in both groups (P<0.001), but the increase was significantly higher in SE than in ES (27.5±12.7 vs. 15.2±10.3%, P<0.02). Hence, the intra-session exercise sequence had no influence in the maximal endurance power adaptations to concurrent training, but had influence in the magnitude of the muscle quality enhancements.

Efeito do número e intensidade das ações excêntricas nos indicadores de dano muscular

A realização de uma sessão de treinamento de força, especialmente de ações excêntricas, provoca danos à estrutura muscular. Algumas características da realização das ações excêntricas parecem agravar a ocorrência do dano. O número de contrações realizadas e o grau de tensão desenvolvida em cada uma delas parecem afetar a magnitude o dano. Dessa maneira, o objetivo deste estudo foi investigar se o número e a intensidade das ações excêntricas contribuem para o aumento do dano muscular, avaliado através das alterações de marcadores indiretos. Vinte e quatro jovens adultos do sexo masculino foram divididos aleatoriamente em três grupos. Um dos grupos realizou 30 ações excêntricas para os flexores do cotovelo com 70% de 1RM (EXC30-70, n = 8). Outro grupo realizou o mesmo número de repetições, porém com 110% de 1RM (EXC30110, n = 8). Um terceiro grupo realizou um número maior de repetições (60) com 70% de 1RM (EXC60-70, n = 8). A amplitude de movimento, a circunferência do braço, a força máxima (1RM) e a dor muscular tardia foram avaliadas antes, imediatamente, 48 e 96 horas após o exercício. Os resultados foram analisados através de análise de variância com dois fatores e revelaram que as alterações foram maiores no grupo EXC30-110 comparadas com EXC30-70 e EXC60-70. Esses dados sugerem que a intensidade das ações excêntricas afeta mais a ocorrência de dano do que o número de contrações.

Effects of a daily mixed nutritional supplement on physical performance, body composition, and circulating anabolic hormones during 8 weeks of arduous military training

The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of a daily mixed nutritional supplement upon body composition, physical performance, and circulating anabolic hormones in soldiers undergoing arduous training. Thirty males received either a habitual diet alone (CON, n = 15) or with the addition of a daily mixed supplement (SUP, n = 15) of ∼5.1 MJ·d⁻¹ during 8 weeks of training. Body composition (DEXA), maximal dynamic lift strength (MDLS), and vertical jump (VJ) were assessed, and resting blood samples were collected before and after training. Blood analysis included insulin-like growth factors (IGF-1, IGF BP-1, and IGF BP-3), testosterone, and cortisol. There were no group differences at baseline. Body mass loss (mean ± SD) (CON 5.0 ± 2.3, SUP 1.6 ± 1.5 kg), lean mass loss (CON 2.0 ± 1.5, SUP 0.7 ± 1.5 kg), and fat mass loss (CON 3.0 ± 1.6, SUP 0.9 ± 1.8 kg) were significantly blunted by SUP. CON experienced significant decrements in MDLS (14%), VJ (10%), and explosive leg power (11%) that were prevented by SUP. Military training significantly reduced circulating IGF-1 (28%), testosterone (19%), and the testosterone:cortisol ratio (24%) with no effect of SUP. Circulating IGF BP-1 concentration and cortisol remained unchanged throughout, although SUP abolished the significant decrease in circulating IGF BP-3 (20%) on CON. In conclusion, a daily mixed nutritional supplement attenuated decreases in body mass and lean mass and prevented the decrease in physical performance during an arduous military training program.

Influence of Strength Training Background on Postactivation Potentiation Response

The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of the subjects' level of maximal dynamic strength and training background on postactivation potentiation (PAP). A group of 23 subjects, composed of power track-and-field athletes (PT = 8), bodybuilders (BB = 7), and physically active subjects (PA = 8), participated in the study. Maximal dynamic strength (1 repetition maximum test) was assessed in the leg press exercise for subjects' characterization. Their countermovement vertical jump (CMJ) performance was assessed before and after 2 different conditioning activity (CA) protocols (1 or 3 maximum voluntary isometric contractions [MVICs] of 5-second duration in the leg press exercise) or after control (no CA), performed on separate days. No significant differences among groups were found for CMJ height or take-off velocity after any of the CA protocols (p ≤ 0.05). However, individual analysis showed that some subjects increased performance in response to the CA, despite their previous training history. We concluded that subjects' level of maximal dynamic strength and training background have no influence on PAP manifestation. Our data suggest that coaches should individually identify the athletes that are PAP responders before introducing MVICs as part of their warm-up routines.

Salzburg Skiing for the Elderly Study: influence of alpine skiing on aerobic capacity, strength, power, and balance

Alpine skiing is a recreational sport with high demands on the cardiovascular and neuromuscular systems. It is assumed that skiing could have positive effects on the decline in aerobic capacity, strength, and balance ability of older individuals. In a 12-week intervention study, 47 elderly subjects (age 60-76 years) were randomized into an intervention group (IG) and a control group (CG). The IG averaged 28.5 days of guided skiing during 12 weeks. Aerobic capacity, leg power, and strength as well as postural stability were tested before, immediately after, and 10 weeks after the intervention phase. VO(2 max) improved by 7.2% from Pre to Post for the IG, without any change in the CG. Jump height increased on average by 6% over the 12 weeks for the IG, while jump height for the CG deteriorated by -11.7%. Dynamic maximal strength measured in both legs increased by 16% in the IG during the 12 weeks of skiing. In the CG, it increased by 7%, without being significant. In postural ability, no differences between groups or over time were noted. It appears that, in older individuals, 12 weeks of skiing leads to a significant increase in aerobic capacity, leg muscle power, and strength.

Is There a Relationship Between Limb and Trunk Muscle Hypertrophy After High-Intensity and Low-Intensity-BFR Training

It has been reported that high-intensity resistance training or low-intensity resistance training combined with blood flow restriction (BFR) results in significant increases in limb muscle size and improved muscle function. However, it is unknown whether there is a significant correlation between limb and trunk muscle hypertrophy following the two types of resistance training programs. PURPOSE: To investigate the relationship between training-induced limb and trunk muscle hypertrophy in the high-intensity resistance training and low-intensity BFR training groups. METHODS: Twenty untrained young men (24.4±2.4 years; BMI = 21.5±2.4 kg/m2) were divided into two training groups: high-intensity resistance training group (HIT, 75% of one repetition maximum [1RM] and total 30 reps [10 reps × 3 sets], n=10) or low-intensity BFR resistance training group (LI-BFR, 30% of 1RM and total 75 reps [30, 15, 15, 15 reps], n=10). Both training groups performed free weight bench press training, 3 days/week for 6 weeks. During LI-BFR exercise sessions, subjects wore pressure cuffs (3-cm width) on both arms that were inflated to 100-160 mmHg. MRI-measured triceps brachii (TB) and pectoralis major (PM) muscle cross-sectional areas (CSA) and maximal dynamic (1RM) bench press strength were measured before and 3 days after the final training session. RESULTS: Total training volumes (lifting weight x repetition) for all of the sessions were similar between HIT [19063 (SD 3398) kg] and LI-BFR [19994 (SD 3546) kg] groups. The training led to an increase in 1RM bench press strength in both groups. TB and PM muscle CSA increased 8.8% and 15.8% (P <.01), respectively, in the HIT group and 4.9% (P <.05) and 8.3% (P <.01), respectively, in the LI-BFR group. The relative increase in PM muscle CSA was greater (P <.05) than that of TB muscle CSA in the HIT group, but not in the LI-BFR group. There was significant correlation (r = 0.70, P <.05) between increases in PM and TB muscle CSA in the HIT group. However, a significant correlation was not found in the LI-BFR group (r = 0.54, P = 0.11). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that limb and trunk muscle hypertrophy occurs simultaneously during HIT training but not during low-intensity BFR training, possibly due to individual differences in muscle activation of the arm and chest muscles during the training sessions.