Mature Larvae Research Articles

Oestrus ovis in Sheep in Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh

Oestrosis, caused by larvae of Oestrus ovis, is an obligatory myiasis of sheep and goats, identified as a significant problem in small ruminants globally. The present study is aimed to focus on gross lesions and phenotypic characterization of O. ovis larvae and adult flies in infested sheep. A total 123 sheep heads were inspected during routine slaughter or necropsy, for the presence of O. ovis larvae. Of these, 45 (36. 58%) sheep heads were found to harbour the larvae. The infestation rates with respect to breed was highest in non-descript sheep (45%) compared to Nellore Brown (40.27%) and Nellore Jodipi (22.58%), without any significant difference. Age-wise highest prevalence was recorded in older sheep (>1 year, 66.66%), than young ones (< 1 year, 30.39%) with significant difference (ꭓ2=9.877, P=0.002). Gender-wise, ewes showed highest prevalence (37.5%) compared to rams (36.44%) without any significant difference. Gross examination of infested sheep revealed copious nasal discharge, varying from serous to mucopurulent type with inflamed mucous membranes of naso-cranial sinuses. The larval instars (L2 and L3) and adult flies that developed from mature larvae were identified based on stigmal plates and morphological characteristics. In conclusion, oestrosis is common in sheep in Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh, indicating the need for regular surveillance to follow appropriate control strategies.

In vitro insecticidal activity on Anopheles gambiae giles, 1902 and antiplasmodial activity on Plasmodium falciparum welch, 1897 of essential oils of some plants of the Cameroonian flora

For decades, pest control has been confronted with the double resistance of vectors to usual insecticides and of parasites to conventional molecules. The search for new natural molecules is therefore a necessity. The present study aimed to evaluate the insecticidal and anti-plasmodial potential of essential oils from the leaves of 10 species of plants belonging to the Myrtaceae family (Syzygium aromaticum, Psidium littorale, Eucalyptus globulus, Eugenia uniflora and Callistemon rigidus), Verbenaceae (Lippia adoensis and Lantana camara) and Cupressaceae (Cupressus sempervirens, Cupressus macrocarpa and Cupressus lusitanica). The essential oils were extracted by steam distillation using a Clevenger-type apparatus. Their chemical composition was determined by GC-MS. Insecticidal tests were performed according to the WHO protocol and the in vitro anti-plasmodial activity of these essential oils was evaluated by the radioisotope method. Except for S. aromaticum and E. uniflora, the essential oils of the plants studied yielded higher content in monoterpenes (49.01% to 100%) than in sesquiterpenes (0% to 49.82%). At 50 ppm, laboratory adults of A. gambiae (tkd95 = 10.32mn) and those of A. gambiae s.l. (tkd95=7.9 min) were more sensitive to the essential oils of S. aromaticum and L. adoensis respectively. Mature larvae of A. gambiae S.l. (LC95=35.4 ppm) and laboratory larvae of A. gambiae (LC95=35.4ppm) were more sensitive to E. uniflora oil. In addition, the essential oils studied had shown in vitro antiplasmodial activity against Plasmodium falciparum. E. globulus (IC50 = 12.13 ppm) and L. camara (IC50 = 12.34 ppm) appeared to be the most active. These oils can be used as a basis for the development of new biocides and natural antimalarials.

Biological Observations on the Salsola tragus L. Weed Feeder Conorhynchus kindermanni Faust, 1904 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Ağrı Mountain Lowland Area

The weevil Conorhynchus kindermanni Faust, 1904 (Curculionidae: Lixinae: Cleonini) was detected in close association with Salsola tragus L. (Amaranthaceae) in Ağrı Mountain soutwestern lowland area where sandy desert. The aim of this study is to determine the life cycle of C. kindermanni feeding on S. tragus. The field research was conducted between Iğdır and Doğubayazıt district of Ağrı Province Turkey in the summer of 2020. According to the results, adults of C. kindermanni feed on S. tragus starting on the rosette stage of this weed. Mating occurs on the ground among young plants, and eggs were laid on roots attached with a glue-like secretion. The legless larvae are freely able to move in sandy soil to reach lateral branches of roots for feeding. The mature larva prepares a solitary soil-case for pupal development in the soil near the host plant root. New generation adults hibernate inside the chamber until emergence from soil in early spring. This species produces one generation in a year in the Ağrı Mountain lowland desert habitat. Key words: Conorhynchus kindermanni, Salsola tragus, weed, biological observation, Ağrı Mountain

American fall webworm in China: A new case of global biological invasions

American fall webworm in China: A new case of global biological invasions

Identification and Expression Characterization of the Smad3 Gene and SNPs Associated with Growth Traits in the Hard Clam (Meretrix meretrix)

It has been demonstrated that the sekelsky mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 3 (Smad3) plays an important role in the growth and development of vertebrates. However, little is known about the association between the Smad3 gene and the growth traits of mollusks. In this study, Smad3 from the hard clam Meretrix meretrix (Mm-Smad3) was cloned, characterized, and screened for growth-related single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in its exons. The full-length cDNA of Mm-Smad3 was 1938 bp, encoding a protein with 428 amino acid residues. The protein sequence included an MH1 (27–135 aa) and MH2 domain (233–404 aa). Promoter analysis showed that the promoter sequence of Mm-Smad3 was 2548 bp, and the binding sites of Pit-1a, Antp, Hb, and other transcription factors are related to the growth and development of hard clams. The phylogenetic tree was divided into two major clusters, including mollusks and vertebrate. The expression level of Mm-Smad3 was predominantly detected in the mantle and foot, while extremely less expression was observed in the digestive gland. The low expression level of Mm-Smad3 was detected at the stages of unfertilized mature eggs, fertilized eggs, four-cell embryos, blastula, gastrulae, trochophore, and D-shaped larvae, whereas an opposite trend was observed regarding the highest expression at the umbo larvae stage (p &lt; 0.05). In the mantle repair experiment, the time-course expression profiles showed that compared to the expression level at 0 h, Mm-Smad3 significantly decreased at 6 h (p &lt; 0.05) but increased at 12 and 48 h. Further, the association analysis identified 11 SNPs in the exons of Mm-Smad3, of which three loci (c.597 C &gt; T, c.660 C &gt; T, c.792 A &gt; T) were significantly related to the growth traits of clam (p &lt; 0.05). Overall, our findings indicated that Mm-Smad3 is a growth-related gene and the detected SNP sites provide growth-related markers for molecular marker-assisted breeding of this species.

Temperature-dependent development of Anisopteromalus calandrae (Howard) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) parasitizing Lasioderma serricorne (F.) (Coleoptera: Anobiidae)

Inundated release of parasitoids is an environmentally friendly pest insect control method. Deep understanding influence of different temperatures on development of parasitoids is very helpful for improving biological control effectiveness. Thus, the life history parameters of Anisopteromalus calandrae (Howard) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) reared on mature larvae (about 30 days old) of Lasioderma serricorne (F.) (Coleoptera: Anobiidae) were investigated at 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 °C. Anisopteromalus calandrae completed development with adult emergence at 25, 30, and 35 °C. The developmental rate of A. calandrae increased significantly with increasing temperature, and the favorable temperature for A. calandrae development was 25 °C. The mean generation survival rates were 49.67, 50.33, and 40.00% at 25, 30, and 35 °C, respectively. The developmental threshold temperatures of eggs, larvae, pupae, and preoviposition were 22.55, 18.86, 10.02, and 23.38 °C, respectively, and their effective accumulated temperatures were 5.33, 43.69, 152.48, and 2.90 °C·d, respectively. The present results are in favor of further understanding the biological characteristics of A. calandrae and designing effective biological control protocols.

IMPACT OF NATURAL ENEMIES ON LARVAE OF THAUMETOPOEA BONJEANI (LEPIDOPTERA NOTODONTIDAE) IN ASSOCIATION WITH THAUMETOPOEA PITYOCAMPA IN NORTHERN ALGERIA

The cedar processionary moth, Thaumetopoea bonjeani (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae), is a serious pest of the Atlas cedar Cedrus atlantica in north-western Africa and it is involved in the decline of this endangered tree species. Natural enemies of the cedar processionary moth are poorly known, especially for parasitoids, predators and pathogens of the larval-pupal life stages. Mature larvae were collected and examined in 2014 and 2015 in natural stands of Atlas cedar in the Djurdjura (northern Algeria), in occurrence with pine processionary moth Thaumetopoea pityocampa. The overall mortality rate of larvae of Thaumetopoea bonjeani ranged from 26.4% to 31.1%, with generalist predators and parasitoids being more effective than pathogens. Four primary parasitoid species were recorded, of which four tachinid flies and one braconid wasp, as well as four predatory beetles and one fungus. The most important species were the carabid Calosoma sycophanta and the tachinid Compsilura concinnata. The cooccurrence of T. bonjeani and T. pityocampa may offer to generalist natural enemies an extended period of availa- bility of similar preys, as the two processionary moths have different life cycles. The sharing of natural enemies between the two species of Thaumetopoea can mitigate the outbreaks of both species.

The life history, distribution and morphological updates of horned poppy feeder Acentrus histrio (Schoenherr, 1837) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Curculioninae)

The augmented morphological description of the weevil species Acentrus histrio (Schoenherr, 1837) is provided and supplied with photographs of the terminalia and genitalia of both sexes. Female genitalia are described for the first time. Glaucium grandiflorum Boiss. &amp; A. Huett and Glaucium corniculatum (L.) Rudolph (Papaveraceae) are reported as the host plants in Turkey. The adults emerge from the soil in very early spring, locate the host plant, feed on young leaves and buds, mate on the host plant, and females deposit eggs inside the seed capsules. The larvae feed with seeds, mature larvae leave capsules entering soil to pupate, and adults of the new generation hibernate in the soil at the root base of the host plant. This species is univoltine and produced one generation annually in eastern Turkey. Acentrus histrio is newly recorded for Azerbaijan, and A. boroveci Košťál, 2014, for Tajikistan.

Black soldier fly larvae for treatment and segregation of commingled municipal solid waste at different environmental conditions

The commingled nature of the municipal solid waste in many developing nations is one of the primary reasons behind the failure to its successful management. Although there are technologies to effectively treat and process well-segregated and classified waste, they are ineffective in managing the commingled waste. Commingled waste has neither calorific value enough to support waste-to-energy operations nor is it suitable for producing quality compost to generate market value. In this article, a novel Black Soldier Fly Larva (BSFL) -based technology has been proposed and tested to auto-segregate and treat the biodegradable fraction of the Commingled Municipal Solid Waste (CMSW). Several BSFL feeding experiments on five different CMSW compositions were conducted at various temperatures and relative humidity conditions. BSFL could selectively consume the biodegradable fraction of the CMSW to convert it into its body mass and separate itself from the rest of the waste, which mainly consisted of inert and recyclable waste fractions that can be further treated using appropriate waste treatment technology. The mature larvae or the pre-pupae grown at the expense of the biodegradable waste fraction can find several commercial uses. The larvae's consumption rate and weight gain were dependent on the environmental conditions; 30 °C and relative humidity of 65–75% provided the highest consumption rate and most significant weight gain. The batch experiments in the laboratory proved that BSFL could be promising for the treatment of CMSW. The experimental data presented may help design a process for further scaling up an effective treatment method for CMSW, which might benefit many developing nations in managing their waste effectively and economically.

Effects of Diet and Temperature on the Life History of the Redlegged Ham Beetle (Coleoptera: Cleridae).

We investigated the effects of various foods and different rearing temperatures on the survival and development of the redlegged ham beetle Necrobia rufipes (De Geer) (Coleoptera: Cleridae), a serious pest of dry-cured hams. The diets tested were dried pet food, finely shredded copra, shredded cheese, dry-cured ham, ground fish meal, and mature larvae of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). As indicated by the growth index and k-values, N. rufipes populations grew fastest on the pet food and slowest on the copra. On the other hand, N. rufipes fed both ham and T. castaneum larvae produced significantly heavier larvae. The adult beetles lived significantly longer on cheese compared to other foods. Studies conducted to determine the developmental rates of N. rufipes fed pet food at temperatures of 22, 25, 28, and 31°C showed that the total developmental time and longevity of N. rufipes significantly varied at different temperatures tested. The shortest developmental time (93.32 d) was observed at 28°C. Oviposition rate was highest for females reared at 25°C while lowest at 22°C. Based on the development, reproduction, and thermal requirements, the most suitable temperature for N. rufipes was between 28 and 31°C. The results also revealed that larval cannibalism prevailed among adult beetles.

Pest categorisation of Leucinodes pseudorbonalis.

The EFSA Panel on Plant Health performed a pest categorisation of the snout moth Leucinodes pseudorbonalis Mally, Korycinska, Agassiz, Hall, Hodgetts & Nuss (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), for the territory of the EU. This species is not included in the EU Commission Implementing Regulation 2019/2072. This oligophagous species, which feeds on fruit and leaves of Solanum aethiopicum (Ethiopian eggplant) and S. melongena (eggplant), is known to occur in sub‐Saharan Africa (Angola, Liberia, Senegal, Uganda). Adults oviposit on leaves and newly hatched caterpillars can bore into shoots, causing wilting and dieback, before moving into the fruit, which they tunnel. Damage may be visible only if the fruit is cut open. A single aubergine can be infested by up to 20 larvae. Mature larvae abandon the fruit to pupate in a cocoon in the soil. Adult moths fly for short distances only in darkness. Potential entry pathways for L. pseudorbonalis, such as Solanum spp. plants for planting and soil/growing media are regulated and can be considered as closed. The fruit and leaves pathways remain open from countries where L. pseudorbonalis is known to occur. Indeed, this species was intercepted in the EU with S. aethiopicum eight times from January to June 2021. Should L. pseudorbonalis enter the EU, host availability (S. melongena) and climatic conditions in some limited areas of southern EU Member States could allow this species to successfully establish and spread within these areas. Economic impact in aubergine production is anticipated if establishment occurs. L. pseudorbonalis satisfies the criteria that are within the remit of EFSA to assess for this species to be regarded as a potential Union quarantine pest. Because this is a recently described species, there are knowledge gaps related to the biology of this moth and its distribution. However, these gaps do not affect the conclusions of this categorisation.

Evaluation of Matured Larval Weight and Larval Duration of New Breeding Lines of Bombyx mori L

We planned to conduct this study with the main aim to develop bivoltine breeds for our tropical climatic conditions by using silkworm breeds with known genetic backgrounds (KA, NB18 and PM) in various hybrid combinations and incorporating them over generations, followed by backcrossing and adequate selection of different generations with the objective of profitability and productivity. The isolated Bivoltin lines (R1 and R2) were reared with their parental races at different times of the year to evaluate their stability in the expression of commercial traits. For the present breeding program, the purebred Bivoltine Kalimpong-A (KA), which spin white oval cocoons, New Bivoltine18 (NB18) white cocoons with rotating dumbbells and Multivoltine Pure Mysore (PM), the yellow pointed cocoons of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori L., Selected. One-way and three-way crosses were made using the above three breeds. The first single cross comprised KA females and PM males. The second unique cross comprised NB18 females and PM males. Selection was performed at the egg, larva, pupal, and cocoon stages over the course to determine the desired traits. The offspring of F from the respective crosses were backcrossed with their respective bivoltine males to improve commercial traits. Heterosis in the F1 generations of crosses, including NB18 and PM, was determined by the mean score of the parents (MPV) and the best score of the parents (BPV). A significant test for heterosis was performed using a standard ANOVA table. Based on the results of our study, it was found that the performance of the characters, viz. The weight of mature larvae and the duration of the larvae over generations do not simply increase or decrease regularly, but fluctuate irregularly. The reason for this variation may be due to random genetic drift, sampling errors in estimating generational means, selection pressures, and environmental factors. Therefore, inbreeding variations due to random drift and sampling errors could be reduced by increasing the number sampled and selected.

Redescription of Simulium (Gomphostilbia) omutaense Ogata & Sasa (Diptera: Simuliidae) from Japan and its phylogenetic relationship with other members of the S. batoense species-group

Simulium (Gomphostilbia) omutaense Ogata & Sasa, 1954 is the only named species in the Simulium batoense species-group of the subgenus Gomphostilbia Enderlein recorded from Honshu and Kyushu, Japan. It represents the northernmost distribution of this species-group, of which most members are distributed in the Oriental region. This species, the only member of the Simulium omutaense subgroup, is unique among the seven subgroups of the S. batoense species-group by having the pupal gill with one long filament and seven short filaments, similar to the arrangement of the pupal gill filaments in the S. zonatum subgroup of the S. epistum species-group in the same subgenus. This species is fully redescribed based on adults, pupal exuviae and mature larvae, and is most similar to species of the S. decuplum subgroup, based on adult morphological characteristics, although the pupal gill of the latter subgroup is markedly different by having 10 or 12 short filaments. Its close relationship to the S. decuplum subgroup is supported by a DNA analysis using COI gene sequences, with genetic distances of 9.30–11.02%. On the other hand, genetic distances between S. (G.) omutaense and species of the S. zonatum subgroup were 16.32–16.93%. Our study shows that a similar arrangement of the pupal gills in two different species-groups, which is rarely seen, has evolved independently and its occurrence does not necessarily reflect phylogenetic relationships.

Integrative taxonomy clarifies species limits in the hitherto monotypic passion‐vine butterfly genera Agraulis and Dryas (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae, Heliconiinae)

AbstractThe Heliconiini genera Agraulis and Dryas are widely distributed throughout the Neotropics and into adjacent temperate regions, and although they are currently treated as monotypic, both show significant geographic phenotypic variation. In this work, we employ six genetic markers (4199 bp), two mitochondrial and four nuclear, to perform coalescent species delimitation analyses in Bayesian Phylogenetics and Phylogeography (BPP) and in integrated BPP (iBPP), the latter also includes linear measurements and wings landmarks. We also analyze cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) barcode sequences for each genus using genetic distances, haplotype networks and a character‐based approach. Based on the model testing results, complemented with data from previous studies, we performed morphometric analyses to compare fore and hindwing size, aspect ratio and shape among the new species. In addition, we compared the forewing spot pattern of hypothesizes species using the r package patternize and, for Dryas, compared the colour patterns of mature larvae. Model testing of the molecular species delimitation outputs favoured a seven species hypothesis for Agraulis and a four species hypothesis for Dryas. Average distances among COI barcode sequences of these groups were from 1.09 to 5.81% in Agraulis and from 1.09 to 3.44% in Dryas. Within‐group distances ranged from 0 to 1.11% and between 0 and 2.43%, respectively. NeighborNet haplotype networks showed that all but one of the species are monophyletic, and the character‐based approach found exclusive diagnostic positions for most species, while the rest can be recognized by unique combinations of the 44 informative nucleotide positions analysed. Morphometric analysis supported all species of Agraulis and Dryas based on wing shape, and also in several cases on wing sizes and aspect ratio (hindwing length–forewing length), including A. v. galapagensis, which was absent from the molecular study. The analysis of the forewing spot pattern also revealed differences among most species hypothesis. The colour pattern of the last instar larva is also diagnostic for each Dryas species hypothesis. Locality data for species in both genera show that most of them are allopatric albeit a few have contact zones being parapatric at some locations. Based on the observed genetic differences, which covary with morphology and geographical distribution, we recommend the recognition of eight species of Agraulis: A. incarnata, A. vanillae, A. forbesi new status, A. insularis reinstated status, A. maculosa new status, A. lucina reinstated status, A. galapagensis new status and one undescribed species, and four species of Dryas: D. iulia, D. dominicana revised status, D. lucia revised status and D. alcionea reinstated status. Further work is needed to investigate, which selective forces have led to the current configurations of venation and wing shape, the probable gene flow among species with a focus on Agraulis and gather more data on species ecology.LSIDurn: lsid: zoobank.org: pub: 9E8C9F6E‐91C3‐4FB2‐804D‐1A9C4BD2EABB.

Hygroscopic larval provisions of bees absorb soil water vapor and release liquefied nutrients

Larvae of most bee species consume individual provision masses composed of pollen mixed with nectar. For simple metabolic reasons, mature larvae should weigh less than their consumed provision. However, past research reported a remarkable result: mature larvae of three ground-nesting halictid bees weighed 60% more than their original provision masses. This surprising paradox could result from the expected hygroscopic nature of nectar. Sugar solutions absorb water vapor at rates defined by their osmolarity and ambient humidity. Our experiments tested this hypothesis, showing that larval provisions of a ground-nesting bee, Nomia melanderi, are strongly hygroscopic. They consequently absorbed substantial water vapor from this bee’s preferred nesting soil. Mature larvae weighed 65% more than their original provision because hygroscopy had greatly augmented available dietary water. Liquid accumulating around isolated provisions was a sweet nutritious broth that included amino acids leached from the pollen. Hygroscopy was most intense during the egg and early larval stages. However, provision liquefaction (and possible drowning) was partly offset by rapid hydration of cached pollen, whose weight could double after absorbing free water. Larval provisions of two cavity-nesting Osmia species also readily absorbed water vapor from a soil atmosphere. However, at humidities measured within tunnels of their natural deadwood nesting substrates, they gained little weight via hygroscopy. Consequently, their mature larvae weighed less, not more, than the provision that they ate. These new insights explain some nesting traits shared by many ground-nesting bees, such as why females do not waterproof the earthen cell caps of their nest cells, or why many colletids cache liquid provisions. Progressive hygroscopy and resulting sugar dilution may also mediate succession of microbial mutualists and pathogens in provision masses of ground-nesting bees.

Population Dynamics and Control Potential of the Soil-Dwelling Stages of the South African Citrus Thrips, Scirtothrips aurantii (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), on Avocado

Scirtothrips aurantii (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) is a recently confirmed economic pest of avocado (Persea americana). Damage by S. aurantii, through their feeding on avocado fruit results in corky tissue development (scarring), making the fruit unsuitable for export. The study aimed to monitor S. aurantii population dynamics during the critical early fruiting period by means of dispersal/emergence (D/E) traps and fruit infestation indices. The field efficacy of biologicals (Beauveria bassiana, Steinernema feltiae), the pyrethroid beta-cyfluthrin, and the semi-synthetic spinosyn, spinetoram, against soil-dwelling stages of S. aurantii during early fruit development were determined. Finally, the study aimed to establish the pupation sites of S. aurantii in avocado. Above ground, population dynamics fluctuated directly in response to the host plant's phenological changes and were modified by rainfall. Control of soil-dwelling stages by the insecticides and the effectiveness of D/E traps in monitoring S. aurantii populations were not demonstrated, probably because the populations trapped using the D/E traps were not representative of the above-ground populations, as evidenced by fruit infestation indices. Under laboratory conditions, 81.60 % of mature larvae pupated away from the soil, demonstrating that S. aurantii does not passively drop to the ground in an avocado orchard, but actively seeks out dark, sheltered areas to pupate.

Temperature and Photoperiodic Response of Diapause Induction in Anastatus japonicus, an Egg Parasitoid of Stink Bugs.

Simple SummaryAnastatus japonicus Ashmead is an important egg parasitoid wasp and natural enemy of Tessaratoma papillosa. It is commercially used in biological control, and has effectively suppressed T. papillosa population for decades in China. In practice, medium temperature in spring always induces diapause in A. japonicus, leading to the delay of adult emergence and missing the best chance to control the pest. Accurately regulating the development of A. japonicus is a key technique for the production of biocontrol agents and field release applications. In this study, responsible environmental factors for the induction of diapause in A. japonicus were investigated. A short photoperiod and medium temperature led to diapause in A. japonicus. Second–third instar larva are the most sensitive stages to diapause stimuli. Diapausing mature larvae had a significantly higher survival rate after 180 days storage at 10 °C than that of nondiapausing mature larvae. Taken together, results suggest methods that could be exploited in the developmental regulation, field-release pretreatment technology, and long-term storage of A. japonicus.Anastatus japonicus Ashmead is a widely used biological control agent against stink bugs that can be successfully reared using the large eggs of the Chinese silkworm. In this study, environmental factors responsible for the induction of diapause in A. japonicus were investigated on host eggs of the Chinese silkworm. A. japonicus exhibited a facultative, mature larval diapause within its host eggs. Second–third instar larva are the most sensitive stages to diapause stimuli. The accumulation of diapause stimuli during all the larval stages maximized the diapause response. A short photoperiod of 10L:14D and temperature of 17 °C led to the occurrence of the highest diapause response, while a long photoperiod (14L:10D) and low temperatures (11 and 14 °C) prevented the diapause. A specific exposure period was required to reach high diapause incidence. Diapausing mature larvae had a significantly higher survival rate after 180 days storage at 10 °C than that of nondiapausing mature larvae. Taken together, results suggest methods that could be exploited in the developmental regulation, field-release pretreatment technology, and long-term storage of A. japonicus.

The Life History and Entomophagy of Saturnia centralis and Related Saturniidae

The previously unpublished immature stages and biology of Saturnia centralis are briefly described and illustrated and compared to related species. Taxonomy and biology of the eastern Asian species of Saturnia, traditionally treated under the generic name Eriogyna, are reviewed. Saturnia centralis is a pest in commercial walnut (Juglans) groves in Yunnan Province, China. Mature larvae usually form a communal mass of cocoons on the bark of the host tree, but sometimes spin cocoons singly. Adults of S. centralis emerge and mate prior to sunset, and a female was observed to mate twice with different males. Pupae of S. centralis and Cachosaturnia cachara are sold locally in markets in Yunnan for human consumption. Elderly people in remote villages in Yunnan were surveyed about this entomophagy.

Contribution to the knowledge of the immature stages of Palaearctic species of the genus Anthonomus Germar (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).

The mature larvae and pupae of Anthonomus (Anthonomidius) rubripes Gyllenhal, A. (s. str.) incurvus (Panzer), A. (s. str.) conspersus Desbrochers des Loges, and A. (s. str.) latior Pic, are described for the first time. The immature stages of A. (Anthomorphus) pinivorax Silfverberg, A. (s. str.) pedicularius (Linnaeus) (larva only), A. (s. str.) rubi (Herbst) are redescribed. The previous description of A. (s. str.) pomorum (Linnaeus) is checked and updated with new data. Keys for the identification of species of 9 larvae and 10 pupae of Palaearctic species are presented. Additional information on the biology of some species is provided. Crataegus pinnatifida is established as a host plant for the first time for A. (s. str.) latior.

INTEGUMENTAL MICROSTRUCTURES OF STINGLESS BEES (APOIDEA: APIDAE: MELIPONINI)

Herein, microstructures (setae, spicules, and multi-pronged spicules) found on 1) the outer surfaces of mature larvae of stingless bees (Meliponini) and 2) the posterior surfaces of the hind legs of adult workers of these same bees are described, anatomically compared, and their functions assessed. It is concluded that those features on the hind legs of workers are true setae whereas those on mature larvae are multi-pronged spicules. However, it is proposed that under certain circumstances the multi-pronged spicules may well serve to similarly reduce friction while being actively employed.