Mature Forest Patches Research Articles

Anthropogenic Effects on Green Infrastructure Spatial Patterns in Kisangani City and Its Urban–Rural Gradient

Urban and peri-urban expansion significantly influences the spatial pattern of cities and surrounding zones. This study examines the spatial changes in green infrastructure components, specifically focusing on mature forests, short forests, and agricultural and grass lands from 1986 to 2021, using satellite imagery. Two landscape ecology indexes, the percentage of landscape (PLAND), and the largest patch index (LPI), were applied. PLAND provides insights into the proportion of habitat types, capturing overall extent, while LPI elucidates their spatial configuration. The research is conducted in a specific context of increasing urbanization and peri-urbanization in Kisangani city, DR Congo. The findings reveal a decline in both mature and short forests, respectively, from 1986 to 2021, and from 2006 to 2021 alongside a continuous expansion of agricultural and grass lands at the landscape scale. Moreover, the spatial pattern of mature and short forests exhibited significant variations across urban, peri-urban, and rural zones. In the context of 2021, in urban and peri-urban zones, mature forests account for less than 1% of the 2.25 km2 plots, against more than 35% in certain rural plots. Similarly, larger patches of mature forest in urban and peri-urban zones cover less than 0.5% of the 2.25 km2 plots, whereas they exceed 20% in rural zones. From 1986 to 2021, both mature and short forests experienced significant decline and fragmentation, particularly in urban and peri-urban zones, while agricultural and grass lands increased significantly in peri-urban and rural zones. These results raise concerns regarding the functions, services, and opportunities provided by mature and short forests in the context of global change. They also highlight the need for urban planning in Kisangani to prioritize green infrastructure preservation, focusing on maintaining forest connectivity and preventing further fragmentation. Policies should promote sustainable land use in peri-urban zones to achieve a balance between urban expansion and the provision of essential ecosystem services, thereby enhancing long-term resilience.

Relative importance of vegetation features and intra- and inter-specific interactions on habitat preferences of a raptor guild in eucalypt plantations

Forest plantations are increasingly recognized for their role in providing ecosystem services in agroforestry systems. Understanding the habitat preferences of potentially beneficial birds supports effective forest management. Our study focused on identifying breeding habitat preferences of a raptor guild and assessing exotic eucalypt plantations as potential breeding sites. We explored preferences at various spatial scales considering vegetation features, intraspecific territorial behaviour, and interspecific interactions within the guild to determine their importance. We hypothesized that feeding habits and body mass explain differences in habitat preferences among three diurnal raptors (Northern goshawk, Common buzzard, Eurasian sparrowhawk). We employed random forest models to differentiate breeding sites from control plots, assessing factors' relative importance and unravelling the hierarchical process of habitat selection in southwestern Europe's eucalypt plantations. The studied eucalypt plantations emerged as suitable breeding habitats, harbouring dense breeding populations with uniform spatial distribution. Intraspecific territoriality and vegetation significantly influenced breeding habitat selection, while interspecific interactions held lesser influence. Species-specific variations were attributed to feeding habits and body masses. Tall eucalypt trees and mature-like patches were crucial elements driving breeding habitat selection. Raptors' preference for specific woody elements primarily influences areas within a relatively small radius around their nests (including the nest tree, nest site −10 m radius, and nest stand −50 m), with sparrowhawks showing preferences extending to 125 m. Raptors' inclination for mature woody elements and mature forest patches should steer forest management to bolster these apex predators and their contributions in eucalypt plantations within agroforestry systems.

Carbon stock in aboveground biomass and necromass in the Atlantic Forest: an analysis of data published between 2000 and 2021.

Synthesising knowledge on carbon stocks is an essential tool for understanding the potential of forests to store carbon and its drivers. However, such a synthesis needs to be constructed for the Atlantic Forest due to various methodological approaches and biogeographic heterogeneity. Thus, here we conducted a bibliographic search (2000 to 2021) on carbon stocks in the biomass and necromass of Atlantic Forest ecosystems to understand the variation in stocks and their explanatory variables. Drivers included spatial (altitude, forest size) and climatic (precipitation and temperature) variables, and successional stages. Based on the information in 46 articles, biomass exhibited the highest carbon stock (96%), in Mature Forests (MF), with an average of 125.34±40.3 MgC.ha-1, whereas Secondary Forests (SF) stored 82.7±38.2 MgC.ha-1. The carbon in the necromass varied from 1.63 to 11.47 MgC.ha-1, with SF exhibiting 3.90±2.73 MgC.ha-1 and MF 4.31±2.82 MgC.ha-1. Only average annual precipitation and successional stage positively explained the carbon in Atlantic Forest. This research clarifies the function and potential of Atlantic Forest fragments for storing carbon and reinforces need for conserving mature forest patches throughout the biome since one hectare of mature forest can store almost twice as much carbon as one hectare of secondary young patches.

Regional sets of diverse, specialized ground beetle and plant assemblages recolonise China’s restored temperate forest landscapes

Following the historic destruction of China’s forests, large protected forest landscapes have been reestablishment across the country in recent decades. Currently, the species assemblages inhabiting these landscapes remain widely unknown. Here, we aim to establish whether the new temperate forest landscapes in Eastern China, composed of plantation, secondary and remnant mature forest patches, are dominated by widely distributed habitat generalists, widely distributed habitat specialists, or by sets of highly localized forest habitat specialist species, using vascular plants and ground beetles as case studies. We sampled plants and ground beetles on 159 plots representing different forest types distributed across ten study regions. The Chord-normalized expected species shared (CNESS) dissimilarity for beetles and Jaccard dissimilarity for plants were calculated to establish species’ turnover patterns, while we used structural equation and multiple regression models for dissimilarity matrices to establish the relative importance of location, elevation and biotic interactions in explaining large-scale distribution patterns of species assemblages. Both taxa showed highly regionalized recruitment, with plant communities responding strongly to latitude, and to geographic location in general, while the composition of ground beetle communities appeared strongly governed by both the composition of the vegetation and study plot location. Both assemblages showed a distinct lack of widespread habitat generalists. Our results demonstrate for the first time that local assemblages of forest specialist species appear to have survived last century’s deforestation in unknown refugia before successfully re-colonizing China’s restored forest ecosystems. We argue that restored forest landscapes can play a significant role in the conservation of temperate China’s biodiversity at both local and regional scales.

Vampyrum spectrum (Phyllostomidae) movement and prey revealed by radio-telemetry and DNA metabarcoding.

The spectral bat (Vampyrum spectrum), the largest bat species in the Americas, is considered Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and is listed as a species of special concern or endangered in several countries throughout its range. Although the species is known as carnivorous, data on basic ecology, including habitat selection and primary diet items, are limited owing to its relative rarity and difficulty in capturing the species. Leveraging advances in DNA metabarcoding and using radio-telemetry, we present novel information on the diet and movement of V. spectrum based on locations of a radio-collared individual and fecal samples collected from its communal roost (three individuals) in the Lowland Dry Forest of southern Nicaragua. Using a non-invasive approach, we explored the diet of the species with genetic markers designed to capture a range of arthropods and vertebrate targets from fecal samples. We identified 27 species of vertebrate prey which included birds, rodents, and other bat species. Our evidence suggested that V. spectrum can forage on a variety of species, from those associated with mature forests to forest edge-dwellers. Characteristics of the roost and our telemetry data underscore the importance of large trees for roosting in mature forest patches for the species. These data can inform conservation efforts for preserving both the habitat and the prey items in remnants of mature forest required by Vampyrum spectrum to survive in landscape mosaics.

Forest degradation and short-term seasonal exclosure effects on biotic and abiotic factors linked to rangeland rehabilitation in semiarid Chaco, Argentina

In semiarid Chaco, wet season grazing exclosures allow a rapid grass recovery in mature and secondary forest patches, but not in the most degraded patches dominated by shrublands. In order to understand the causes of their dissimilar rehabilitation dynamics, we analyzed the effects of the forest-patch type (mature forest = MF, secondary forest = SF, and shrubland = S) and 4-year seasonal exclosures (vs continuous grazing) on biotic and abiotic factors (vegetation structure, incident radiation, grass seed bank, litter and soil traits) that could affect grass recovery. We found that vegetation structure, through determining litter quantity, controlled soil chemical traits. As forest degradation level increased, litter mass (MF = 6260, SF = 5410, S = 1220 kg DM/ha), total soil organic matter (MF = 5.1%, SF = 4.1%, S = 3.5%) and nitrogen (MF = 0.25%, SF = 0.22%, S = 0.18%) decreased, and the incident radiation at soil level rose (MF = 28%, SF = 41%, S = 52%). After 4 years of seasonal grazing rest, we found reduced soil bulk density (from 1.13 to 1.07 and 1.07 to 1 g/cm3) and increased total porosity (from 57 to 60 and 60 to 62%) at 0–10 and 10–30 cm depth, respectively, in all forest patch types. Exclosure also increased soil seed bank density (from 28 to 251 grass seeds/m2) both in the forests (with grass) and in the shrublands (even before grass recovery), which would receive seeds from the adjacent forest patches, which coexist in the same landscape matrix. Our results suggest that the low tree cover, litter, and soil chemical traits related to lower availability of water and nutrient in shrublands, could hamper grass recovery in recently established exclosures. However, improvements in the grass seed bank and soil physical traits related to higher water infiltration could favor its late recovery, which is triggered by an extremely wet cycle after several years of the seasonal exclosure. Exclosure is a promising management strategy for degraded areas involving intermingled patches of forests and shrublands.

Singing in a fragmented landscape: wrens in a tropical dry forest show sex differences in the effects of neighbours, time of day, and time of year

Songbird vocalizations serve diverse functions including territory defence against neighbouring conspecific animals. In tropical and south-temperate regions, it is commonplace for both female and male songbirds to sing solo songs and coordinated vocal duets to defend their territories. The Area de Conservacion Guanacaste in Costa Rica is the site of an ambitious conservation effort to protect and regrow tropical dry forests; it consists of a mosaic of regenerating and mature forest patches, presenting a special opportunity to study the effect of different numbers of neighbours on male and female wrens living in these fragmented forests. We analyzed recordings of Rufous-and-white Wrens (Thryophilus rufalbus) over a 17-year period, focusing on vocal behaviour and variation in the number of territorial neighbours within the fragmented landscape in the conservation area, and on diel and seasonal variation in female and male song. We hypothesized that the number of conspecific neighbours would influence vocal behaviours, including female and male solo song rate, duet responsiveness rate, repertoire use, and song-switching rate. For females, we found that wrens change song-types more often in areas with more neighbours, whereas the other aspects of female vocal behaviour did not vary with the number of neighbours. For males, we found no aspect of vocal behaviour that varied with the number of neighbours. For both sexes, we found variation in vocal behaviours with time of day and time of year, in keeping with previous research. Our results underscore the idea that we must explore female and male birds independently, because the sexes may respond differently to external factors. We did not find strong links between wren vocal behaviour and variation in the number of neighbours, yet we encourage further behavioural studies on vocal behaviour of birds with varying numbers of neighbours in fragmented landscapes.

Effects of habitat transitions on rainforest bird communities across an anthropogenic landscape mosaic

AbstractWe compared bird community responses to the habitat transitions of rainforest‐to‐pasture conversion, consequent habitat fragmentation, and post‐agricultural regeneration, across a landscape mosaic of about 600 km2 in the eastern Australian subtropics. Birds were surveyed in seven habitats: continuous mature rainforest; two size classes of mature rainforest fragment (4–21 ha and 1–3 ha); regrowth forest patches dominated by a non‐native tree (2–20 ha, 30–50 years old); two types of isolated mature trees in pasture; and treeless pasture, with six sites per habitat. We compared the avifauna among habitats and among sites, at the levels of species, functional guilds, and community‐wide. Community‐wide species richness and abundance of birds in pasture sites were about one‐fifth and one‐third, respectively, of their values in mature rainforest (irrespective of patch size). Many measured attributes changed progressively across a gradient of increased habitat simplification. Rainforest specialists became less common and less diverse with decreased habitat patch size and vegetation maturity. However, even rainforest fragments of 1–3 ha supported about half of these species. Forest generalist species were largely insensitive to patch size and successional stage. Few species reached their greatest abundance in either small rainforest fragments or regrowth. All pastures were dominated by bird species whose typical native habitats were grassland, wetland, and open eucalypt forest, while pasture trees modestly enhanced local bird communities. Overall, even small scattered patches of mature and regrowth forest contributed substantial bird diversity to local landscapes. Therefore, maximizing the aggregate rainforest area is a useful regional conservation strategy.

Rapid effects of windfall on soil microbial activity and substrate utilization patterns in the forest belt in the Tatra Mountains

The aim of the study was to compare the activity, functional diversity, and community-level physiological profiles of soil microorganisms in light of soil physical and chemical properties in areas where a forest was damaged by hurricane-force winds and in untouched spruce forests of the lower montane belt of the Tatra Mountains (the Carpathians). Foehn winds caused a huge windfall in December 2013. The studied valley was strongly affected by windthrow, but in some places, patches of mature forest did survive. In the studied windthrow area, the first stage of secondary succession can now be observed. Sampling sites were selected in places where the soil was not mechanically disturbed. Soil samples were taken from the organic O and humus A soil horizons and basic soil properties were measured, as were the microbial parameters. Overall microbial activity was determined via the soil respiration rate (R), whereas the microbial biomass was determined via the substrate-induced respiration rate (SIR). Bacterial and fungal catabolic activity, functional diversity (H′), and community-level physiological profiles (CLPP) were determined using Biolog® ECO and FF plates, respectively. Research has shown that 21 months following the studied windthrow, in Hypereutric Skeletic Cambisols developed on calcareous parent material, changes have occurred in some soil properties: soil field moisture in O and A horizons has increased, DOC concentration in O horizons has decreased, and the C/N ratio in A horizons has decreased. The effect of the windthrow episode on overall biological activity was observed in soil A horizons, where overall microbial respiration and SIR biomass decreased. In both O and A horizons, the ratio of bacterial and fungal functional activity (AUCbact/fungi) increased as a result of a fungal AUC decrease. Significant differences in substrate utilization by bacteria occurred between forest-covered soils and windthrow soils in O horizons, where the share of polymer-utilized bacteria activity increased. Rapid effects of windfall on soil microbial parameters expressed mostly in decrease overall microbial activity caused by breakdown in fungal activity. However, those differences are more pronounced in A than in O horizons. In spite of changes in those differences, windthrow did not produce a significant effect on the functional diversity index of microorganisms found in the studied soils.

Effects of flood inundation, invasion by Phalaris arundinacea, and nitrogen enrichment on extracellular enzyme activity in an Upper Mississippi River floodplain forest

The community structures and ecosystem functions of floodplains are primarily driven by variation in flood inundation. However, global changes, such as invasive species and nutrient enrichment, may alter the effects of flooding in these systems. We added nitrogen (N) to correspond with twice the annual atmospheric deposition rate of the south-west Wisconsin, USA region within mature floodplain forest plots and patches of an invasive grass (reed canarygrass, Phalaris arundinacea) along a floodplain elevation gradient in an Upper Mississippi River floodplain forest. We measured soil physicochemical properties and the activity of six extracellular enzymes during 3 months that varied in flooding conditions. Multivariate analyses (distance-based redundancy analysis) revealed that floodplain elevation, month of sampling, and vegetation type were all significant predictors of variation in soil physicochemical properties, while elevation and month were significant predictors of multivariate extracellular enzyme activity (EEA). The best model for predicting EEA consisted of nitrogen availability, soil porosity, and water filled pore space. Although the categorical fertilization and invasion treatments were not significant predictors of EEA, our results suggest that their effects depend on the degree to which they modify N availability and soil moisture. In this system, spatial and temporal patterns in flooding appear to be the main driver of these properties, but N enrichment and invasion may have the potential to further modify them.

Ineffectiveness of local zoning to reduce regional loss and fragmentation of wintering habitat for white-tailed deer

Land-use zoning and regulations are frequently used to protect habitat for species threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation. Habitat protection, however, is rarely followed by habitat monitoring; consequently, knowledge about the efficacy of zoning as a species conservation tool is limited. We used a time series of Landsat satellite imagery (1975–2007) to quantify habitat changes in and adjacent to 187 areas zoned on private, commercial forestlands to protect habitat for wintering white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Maine. Near the northern edge of their geographic range where snow can restrict mobility and access to forage, white-tailed deer depend on mature conifer forests as wintering habitat. Our primary objective was to evaluate effectiveness of land-use zoning to conserve and prevent fragmentation of mature conifer forest. Between 1975 and 2007, the incidence rate of timber harvesting in zoned areas was high (97%). Cumulative area harvested (25%) and the associated reduction of mature conifer forest (13%) that resulted from stand-replacing harvests were considerably lower in zoned areas, indicating that regulations were successful at limiting timber harvests within zones. Reduction of mature conifer forest within unzoned 2-km buffers surrounding protected areas was considerably higher (45%). Remaining patches of mature conifer forest became increasingly fragmented, with a greater than 3-fold increase in number of patches and greater than 80% reduction in mean patch area. Regenerating forest increased from 5% to 36% in the landscapes surrounding zones, and although it can offer important browse, travel across young forest is costly for deer during periods of deep snow. Circa 2007, approximately 55% of the mature conifer forest present across our study area in 1975 remained, and our results suggest that less than 50% of the regenerating areas harvested in mature conifer forest will return to conifer dominance. Forest type conversion will, thus, extend effects of habitat fragmentation into the future. Areas protected for wintering deer collectively represent only 2% of the forested land base in our study area, and we conclude that habitat protection focused solely on those narrowly-defined zones has been ineffective at achieving regional conservation of winter habitat for deer. This study demonstrates how remote sensing can be used to overcome the difficulty of monitoring protected forest areas, and exemplifies the need for monitoring to understand the long-term benefits of zoning as a means of wildlife habitat conservation.

Spatial and temporal behavioural responses of wild cattle to tropical forest degradation.

Identifying the consequences of tropical forest degradation is essential to mitigate its effects upon forest fauna. Large forest-dwelling mammals are often highly sensitive to environmental perturbation through processes such as fragmentation, simplification of habitat structure, and abiotic changes including increased temperatures where the canopy is cleared. Whilst previous work has focused upon species richness and rarity in logged forest, few look at spatial and temporal behavioural responses to forest degradation. Using camera traps, we explored the relationships between diel activity, behavioural expression, habitat use and ambient temperature to understand how the wild free-ranging Bornean banteng (Bos javanicus lowi) respond to logging and regeneration. Three secondary forests in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo were studied, varying in the time since last logging (6–23 years). A combination of generalised linear mixed models and generalised linear models were constructed using >36,000 trap-nights. Temperature had no significant effect on activity, however it varied markedly between forests, with the period of intense heat shortening as forest regeneration increased over the years. Bantengs regulated activity, with a reduction during the wet season in the most degraded forest (z = -2.6, Std. Error = 0.13, p = 0.01), and reductions during midday hours in forest with limited regeneration, however after >20 years of regrowth, activity was more consistent throughout the day. Foraging and use of open canopy areas dominated the activity budget when regeneration was limited. As regeneration advanced, this was replaced by greater investment in travelling and using a closed canopy. Forest degradation modifies the ambient temperature, and positively influences flooding and habitat availability during the wet season. Retention of a mosaic of mature forest patches within commercial forests could minimise these effects and also provide refuge, which is key to heat dissipation and the prevention of thermal stress, whilst retention of degraded forest could provide forage.

Responses of flora and fauna in wet eucalypt production forest to the intensity of disturbance in the surrounding landscape

Abstract In disturbance-dependent forest ecosystems, species associated with mature forest may maintain their ranges both by persisting in patches of mature forest and by recolonising patches regenerating after fire, harvesting or other disturbances. The null hypotheses are that these processes are both independent of the intensity of disturbance in the landscape surrounding those patches. These were tested in a 1120 km2 region of tall, wet eucalypt forest in southern Tasmania, which provides a landscape-scale gradient in disturbance intensity shaped by past wildfires and post-European land-use. For all 50 × 50 m cells in the region, a Landscape Disturbance Intensity (LDI) index was calculated based on the vegetation in the surrounding 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 km-radius landscapes. The occurrence of species in three taxonomic groups – birds, vascular plants and flighted beetles – was then sampled in 28 plots (50 × 50 m) across the range of LDI in each of two forest age-classes – mature eucalypt forest (MAT) and 25–50 years-old silvicultural regeneration arising from clearfell harvesting (SILV). In both MAT and SILV plots, the occurrences of many common species showed significant relationships with LDI. Most (>80%) of those relationships reflected species that declined in occurrence with increasing LDI, i.e. were Landscape Disturbance-Sensitive (DSL). However, there were contrasting patterns between the forest age-classes as well as among the three taxonomic groups in the proportion of common species that were DSL. More plant and bird species were DSL in SILV plots (15/49 and 9/27, respectively) than in MAT plots (4/49 and 1/27, respectively). The dominant fractions of the DSL plant and bird species in SILV plots were classed as rainforest trees or shrubs in previous studies and birds that were associated with MAT plots rather than SILV plots in this study, i.e. species that were also sensitive to disturbance at the patch-scale. A similar number of the common beetle species were DSL in MAT plots (29/234) as in SILV plots (35/234). Beetle species that were Patch Disturbance-Sensitive (DSP) in this study were over-represented in the subset of DSL species in MAT plots (9/29), but not in SILV plots (5/35). We conclude that many DSP species inhabiting mature forest stands are resilient to disturbance in the surrounding landscape, but their ability to recolonise regenerating forest stands can be diminished by disturbance at the landscape-scale. This highlights the role of vegetation structure at both patch and landscape-scales in the long-term viability of mature-forest-dependent species in production-forest landscapes.

Breeding habitat preferences and reproductive success of Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) in exotic Eucalyptus plantations in southwestern Europe

Abstract With ongoing degradation of natural forests and spread of forest plantations, plantations must play an increasingly important role in biodiversity conservation. Study of habitat selection and reproductive success of surrogate species in plantations can guide forest management decisions for increasing biodiversity. In this paper we studied the suitability of exotic Eucalyptus plantations managed at low intensity in northwestern Spain as breeding habitat for Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), a top predator frequently considered a surrogate species in conservation. Goshawks showed high breeding density, high reproductive success and a regular spatial distribution of nesting territories. Territoriality was the most important determinant of habitat selection. Goshawks selected extra-mature Eucalyptus trees in areas of high structural complexity (high tree density, tree species richness, and number of tree strata) in the most heterogeneous forest stands (old-mixed Eucalyptus). Reproductive success decreased with increasing local density of breeding pairs, but reproductive success was not related to structural characteristics of nest stands. The studied plantations provided a suitable breeding habitat for Goshawks. The birds preferred to nest in large Eucalyptus trees with appropriate structure in their immediate surroundings. The strong preference of Goshawks for structurally mature forest patches may make them useful as a surrogate species for assessing the ability of forest management practices to promote overall biodiversity in exotic Eucalyptus plantations exploited at low intensity.

Distance, environmental and substrate factors impacting recovery of bryophyte communities after harvesting

AbstractAimsBryophyte re‐colonization after disturbance is largely governed by environmental conditions within disturbed forests. In particular, distance to a forest edge is an important predictor of bryophyte community re‐colonization, through either direct constraints, such as dispersal limitation, or indirectly by altering environmental conditions. This study examines a range of factors – environmental, distance to an edge, substrate specific environment or local‐level environment – to determine which are important in the re‐colonization of bryophyte communities after forest harvesting. As bryophyte communities vary with the particular substrate inhabited, responses were examined across four substrates (rock, exposed roots, ground and CWD).LocationTasmanian southern forests, Australia.MethodsBryophyte composition was examined on four substrates (ground, coarse wood debris, exposed roots, rocks) within three ages (~7, ~27 and ~45 years post‐disturbance) of harvested wet eucalypt forest. Re‐colonization success of bryophyte communities was determined by comparing communities in regeneration forest to mature forest communities using axis scores from one‐dimensional constrained ordination. The importance of various environmental conditions for re‐colonization success was then modelled. Finally, path analysis was used to determine whether the impact of distance to a forest edge was meditated through its effects on key environmental variables.ResultsMultiple environmental factors impacted re‐colonization of mature bryophyte communities. Local‐level conditions such as microclimate (temperature, humidity and VPD) and LAI were the most important in determining re‐colonization across substrates. Path analysis showed that distance to a forest edge had a significant impact on re‐colonization success, but only a relatively small part of this was mediated through its impact on environmental factors.ConclusionsBryophyte re‐colonization is driven by a combination of microclimate conditions and factors related to distance from a forest edge (most likely dispersal distance). While some substrate‐specific factors impact bryophyte re‐colonization success, the consistent impact of local environmental factors across substrates suggests that harvesting management strategies that develop more ‘mature’ microclimate conditions and increase proximity to nearby mature forest patches will be beneficial for all bryophytes communities. As bryophyte re‐colonization was correlated with temporally dynamic environmental conditions, we suggest that forest age needs to be considered in future work.

Camera-trap data elucidate habitat requirements and conservation threats to an endangered forest specialist, the Spotted Ground Thrush (Zoothera guttata)

The spotted ground thrush (Zoothera guttata; SGT) is a globally endangered forest specialist whose distribution is poorly understood in the critically endangered Indian Ocean Coastal Belt Forest (IOCBF) biome on the east coast of southern Africa. More than 70% of the IOCBF has been lost to development, resulting in fragmented forest remnants within a mosaic of different land uses. We conducted camera-trap surveys with 5796 trap-days in 82 forest patches of various sizes across a gradient of land-use types in the IOCBF during the winter seasons of 2014–2016 to establish occupancy (Ψ) of SGT. We used occupancy modelling and incorporated forest microhabitat characteristics and surrounding land-use classifications to compare sites and determine SGT distribution across the habitat mosaic. The top model estimated an average Ψ=0.39±0.09, and detection probability (P)=0.11±0.03. At the landscape scale, larger, less isolated patches had a higher Ψ of SGT while P decreased with proximity to cultivated land. At the microhabitat scale, a high percentage of bare ground influenced Ψ positively but P negatively, as did short grass cover. However, short herbaceous cover and high stem density of large (11–15m) trees influenced P positively. These results detail the influence of landscape-scale factors including forest fragmentation and conversion to agriculture in conjunction with forest microhabitat-scale characteristics, on patch selection and distribution of a cryptic, ground-dwelling species that is both threatened and under-studied. Given its endangered status and dependence on larger and more mature forest patches, SGT may be an effective flagship species for the conservation of threatened IOCBF patches.

Mammalian responses to windrows of woody debris on clearcuts: Abundance and diversity of forest-floor small mammals and presence of small mustelids

Forest harvesting often leaves excess woody debris on the forest floor that could provide habitat for small mammals and mustelid predators. A windrow or series of piles constructed from woody debris may connect patches of mature forest and riparian areas to allow small mammals and some of their predators to use clearcut openings. We tested two hypotheses (H) that woody debris arranged in windrows connecting reserves of uncut forest, on newly clearcut sites, would increase (H1) abundance of the major vole species and total abundance, species richness, and species diversity of the forest-floor small mammal community, and (H2) presence of small mustelids in response to abundance of small mammal prey; compared with sites of dispersed woody debris or uncut forest. We measured abundance and diversity of small mammals and the presence of small mustelids (American marten, Martes americana; short-tailed weasel, Mustela erminea; long-tailed weasel, M. frenata) from 2012 to 2016 in replicated treatments of woody debris in windrow and dispersed sites compared with uncut forest sites at two study areas near Elkhart and Golden in south-central British Columbia, Canada.At Elkhart, mean abundance of total voles and total small mammals per index-line were higher in the windrow than dispersed sites, and higher or similar to forest sites. At Golden, mean abundance of total voles was similar, but the dispersed and windrow sites had higher numbers of total small mammals than the forest sites. Mean species richness and diversity were highest in the windrow sites at both study areas. Thus, the predictions of H1 were supported, except for total voles at Golden. Mean abundance of the southern red-backed vole (Myodes gapperi), a principal prey species for mustelids, was higher in windrow than dispersed sites, and similar or lower than forest sites. M. gapperi, along with the long-tailed vole (Microtus longicaudus) dominated the overall vole population in windrows at Elkhart. M. longicaudus dominated the windrows and dispersed sites at Golden. Deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) and northwestern chipmunks (Neotamias amoenus) were at similar numbers in dispersed and windrow sites, but shrews (Sorex spp.) showed a positive response to windrows. Overall mean presence by marten and small weasels were, on average, 3.3–4.8 times higher in windrow than dispersed sites, and higher or similar to forest sites, which supported H2. Our study is the first to connect windrows to patches and larger units of uncut forest and to cover a 5-year period since harvest. Responses in mean total abundance, species richness, and diversity of small mammals in windrows were maintained throughout the 5-year period. This consistent result was likely related to the connectivity between windrows and uncut forests. Strategic management of post-harvest woody debris in a network of windrows or piles will help to maintain abundance and diversity of forest mammals, both predator and prey species, on clearcuts.

The importance of various stages of succession in preservation of biodiversity among riparian birds in northern Iran.

Every stage of succession may provide certain species with habitat requirements which are impossible in other stages of succession. This study attempts to evaluate the different stages of succession in terms of composition and structure of bird populations in Hyrcanian forests. Bird-habitat relationships were investigated by comparing vegetation characteristics in three successional stages including late, initial stage, and urban areas. Bird richness, diversity, and abundance were measured within a 25-m radius of each of the 120 sampling points in various stages of succession and urban areas from May to April (2014) in the Ziarat catchment. This study indicated that every stage of succession may support certain species. Based on bird-habitat associations along the various stages of succession, two groups were distinguished. Conventional comparative analysis separated two groups of understory birds: interior specialists and edge specialists. The interior-specialist group was positively correlated with the number of dead trees, tall trees with high values of dbh and height and canopy cover. In contrast, edge specialists groups mainly included terrestrial insectivores and were positively correlated with open area and shrub cover, and percentage of shrub cover between 1 and 2m in height. In summary, bird communities in Hyrcanian forests are highly dynamic in different vegetation covers suggesting that it is critical to increase diverse and abundant bird populations by conserving forests composed of mosaics of differently disturbed stands and mature forest patches.

Development of allometric models for above and belowground biomass in swidden cultivation fallows of Northern Laos

Shifting, or swidden, cultivation remains an important land use across Southeast Asia and other parts of the tropics, albeit under pressures from other land uses. The swidden cycle of cultivation and regrowth creates mosaic landscapes with regrowing fallows of various age interspersed with active fields and patches of mature forest. Quantifying tree biomass in these landscapes is limited by the availability of reliable allometric models, hindering accurate carbon stock estimation and thus quantification of GHG emission associated with land use transitions. We therefore developed new allometric models for the prediction of both above- and below-ground woody biomass in swidden systems based on a destructive harvest of 150 trees in Luang Prabang Province, Laos People’s Democratic Republic (PDR). This study is the first to develop allometric models of root biomass for swidden landscapes in this region, which we hypothesised would be a major carbon pool given that resprouting, and associated high root biomass, is a common physiological/morphological trait in regularly disturbed ecosystems. We found that a general model including tree diameter (DBH, cm) and height (H, m) was best for estimating aboveground biomass (AGB, kg) for both resprouts and trees growing from seed (AGB=1.09+0.027D2H) though the inclusion of H only resulted in a marginal increase in model performance meaning a DBH-only model is acceptable to use in the absence of height data (AGB=0.1286DBH2.134). Tree height was less important for estimating root biomass, with models including only DBH performing best. Re-sprouting trees exhibited greater root biomass (BGB=0.355DBH1.732) compared to those growing from seed (0.016DBH2.597) meaning different root allometric models were developed for each tree type. Thus, we suggest that field efforts should be directed towards checking resprouting status over the estimation of tree height. We also found that models fit using non-linear regression provided equally good fits to the data compared to the traditional approach of log-transforming the data. Our models were subsequently applied to 12 nearby plots spanning a chronosequence of fallows to examine the impact of re-sprouting allometry on biomass estimation. Root biomass stocks were on average 58% higher after accounting for the allometry of resprouting trees, resulting in an average 9% increase in total biomass stocks, highlighting the importance of choosing root allometrics based on growth form in swidden fallows. If re-sprouting status is unknown, a stand-level root:shoot ratio of 0.32 can be applied. Our analysis suggests that using our models will substantially improve the accuracy of estimates of tree biomass and its distribution among different pools in swidden fallows. This information is crucial in better quantifying carbon stock changes resulting from the conversion of swidden land to other land uses.

Birds, charcoal and cattle: Bird community responses to human activities in an oak forest landscape shaped by charcoal extraction

Oak forests around the world have been widely used to obtain firewood and produce charcoal and like other habitats have been affected by the increasing development of livestock activities. Oak forests from western Mexico are one of the five priority habitats for the conservation of birds at a continental level and are the repository of the highest number of endemic bird species in this megadiverse country. We studied how charcoal extraction and the use of oak forest for cattle grazing affect bird communities. We focused our work on oak forest patches with four different management units that include three successional stages that occur after most of the trees have been removed for charcoal production and cattle-grazing is conducted, and mature oak forest patches with little wood extraction and no cattle-grazing. We used unlimited radius point counts to survey avian communities, and compared their richness, composition, density, structure and similarity among the different management units. We found that resident bird species, summer migrants and Neotropical migrant bird species used the four management units differently. Resident bird species used all habitat units similarly. Winter migrants as a group were present in the different management units, however while some species used habitats with cattle, other species used habitats with no cattle-grazing. Finally, summer migrants used habitat units with tall trees and high values of tree and shrub richness, and tended to avoid the early successional unit. Both charcoal extraction and cattle grazing worked in synergy decreasing the species richness and the equity of the bird communities. Management strategies should include active conservation of undisturbed oak forest areas because they play an essential role to maintain resident bird species in the landscape.