Mating Disruption Technique Research Articles

Molecular Characterization and In Silico Analysis of the Pheromone-Binding Protein of the European Grapevine Moth Lobesia botrana (Denis & Schiffermüller) (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae).

The European grapevine moth Lobesia botrana (Denis & Schiffermüller) is an economically important insect in Europe. The species invaded vineyards in Chile, Argentina, and California during 2008-2010 causing severe problems. A major component of the sex pheromone, (E,Z)-7,9-dodecadienyl acetate (E7,Z9-12:Ac), is used in a mating disruption technique when grapevine moth populations are low or to monitor pest numbers. It is thought that these sexual pheromones are blends of volatiles that typically are specific to a species and are transported in the insect antenna by pheromone-binding proteins (PBPs) across the sensillar lymph to the olfactory receptors. Currently, an increasing number of Lepidopteran PBPs are being identified and cloned. However, there are no studies of the olfactory system and of proteins involved in the olfactory perception of L. botrana at the molecular level. In the present study, we report, for the first time, the sequence of a PBP from L. botrana (LbotPBP), which was determined using reverse transcription technology. Homology modeling was used to generate the three-dimensional protein structure. The model suggests that PBP consists of six α-helices as follows: Lys2-Met23 (α1), Thr28-Phe36 (α2), Arg46-Leu59 (α3), His70-Asn80 (α4), Glu84-Asn100 (α5), and Cys108-Lys125 (α6), held together by three disulfide bridges, Cys19-Cys54, Cys50-Cys108, and Cys97-Cys117. Docking simulations based on this model suggested that Trp114 is a key residue in the recognition of acetate pheromones, such as E7,Z9-12:Ac. In silico results in this study are consistent with previous findings in which E7,Z9-12:Ac acts as the most active compound in behavioral and electroantennographic assays.

Mating disruption for control of the white grub beetle Dasylepida ishigakiensis (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) with synthetic sex pheromone in sugarcane fields

The feasibility of mating disruption with synthetic sex pheromone for the control of the white grub beetle Dasylepida ishigakiensis (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) was examined by permeating sugarcane fields with a racemic mixture of 2-butanol (rac-2B) released from polyethylene-tube dispensers on Miyako Island, Japan in 2011. An application of rac-2B released from 10,000 tube dispensers into 3,200 m2 sugarcane fields significantly reduced the mating rate of feral females and catches of feral males with R2B-baited traps compared with the results from untreated sugarcane fields. The larval density for the treated fields was found to be nearly zero in the following winter when the corresponding figure for untreated fields was high (1.73 and 2.33/40 × 40 cm quadrat). These results clearly show that the mating disruption technique using rac-2B could be highly promising for the control of D. ishigakiensis in sugarcane fields.

Persistence of the Gypsy Moth Pheromone, Disparlure, in the Environment in Various Climates

Mating disruption techniques are used in pest control for many species of insects, yet little is known regarding the environmental persistence of these pheromones following their application and if persistence is affected by climatic conditions. We first studied the persistent effect of ground applications of Luretape® GM in Lymantria dispar (L) mating disruption in VA, USA in 2006. The removal of Luretape® GM indicated that the strong persistent effect of disparlure in the environment reported by previous studies is produced by residual pheromone in the dispensers as opposed to environmental contamination. In 2010 and 2011, we evaluated the efficacy of two formulations, Disrupt® II and SPLAT GMTM, in VA and WI, USA, which presented different climatic conditions. In plots treated in WI and VA, male moth catches in pheromone-baited traps were reduced in the year of treatment and one year after the pheromone applications relative to untreated controls. However, similar first- and second-year effects of pheromone treatments in VA and WI suggest that the release rate over one and two years was the same across markedly different climates. Future applications that use liquid or biodegradable formulations of synthetic pheromones could reduce the amount of persistence in the environment.

Potential of Synthetic Sex Pheromone Blend for Mating Disruption of the Swede Midge, Contarinia nasturtii

The potential for pheromone-based mating disruption of the Brassica pest Contarinia nasturtii was tested, both in small-scale plots with Brussels sprouts and in commercial-scale fields with either broccoli or cauliflower. Experiments in the small-scale plots used laboratory-reared insects released into a previously uninfested area, whereas large-scale experiments used a high natural population of C. nasturtii. Effectiveness of mating disruption was evaluated by the reduction of male captures in pheromone traps, and by reduction of crop damage caused by C. nasturtii. Dental cotton rolls (small-scale experiment) and polyethylene caps (large-scale experiment), containing 50 μg (2S, 9S)-diacetoxyundecane, 100 μg (2S,10S)-diacetoxyundecane, and 1 μg (2S)-acetoxyundecane, spaced 2 m apart, served as dispensers in the test plots. In both experiments, mean catches of C. nasturtii males in pheromone traps were reduced to near zero in treated plots, with control plots averaging 71 males/trap. In the large-scale experiments, no males were caught in pheromone traps over a period of 41 days after mating disruption was applied; one male was caught from days 42-60. In the small-scale trials, crop damage was reduced by 59 %, compared to the untreated control plot. In the large-scale experiments, damage was reduced on average by 91 %. This study shows successful field application of the mating disruption technique for control of a member of the dipteran family Cecidomyiidae, and demonstrates that pheromone-based mating disruption has potential for management of C. nasturtii populations.

Control of Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in greenhouse tomato crops using the mating disruption technique

AbstractThe effectiveness of mating disruption to control the tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), in greenhouse tomato crops was evaluated in four trials carried out in winter–spring and summer–winter growing seasons in Southwestern Sardinia (Italy). Pheromone dispensers loaded with 60 mg of the natural blend of the major and minor sex pheromone component (rate 90 : 10) were applied in disrupted greenhouses at a rate of 1000/ha (60 g of active ingredient/ha). Male captures in monitoring pheromone traps, percentage of tomato plants infested by T. absoluta and damage on leaves and fruits were monitored weekly and compared in disrupted and untreated (control) greenhouses. In greenhouses disrupted with 1000 dispensers/ha, a reduction of 93–97% in male trap captures was observed, compared with control. Leaf damage was significantly lower in greenhouses disrupted with 1000 dispensers/ha than in control ones, with a reduction of infestation throughout the growing season ranging from 57% to 85%. Pheromone dispensers applied at the density of 1000/ha significantly reduced the percentage of damaged fruits by 62–89%. In control greenhouses, the highest damage on leaves and fruits was generally observed in edge plants, while leaf and fruit infestation was uniformly distributed in pheromone‐treated greenhouses, indicating an even distribution of the pheromone cloud inside the greenhouse. Mating disruption showed to be an efficient strategy to control in greenhouse the tomato leafminer and can be included in the overall tomato integrated pest management programs.

Chemical Ecology and Management of Lobesia botrana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

The moth Lobesia botrana (Denis & Schiffermüller) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) feeds on grapes (Vitis vinifera L.), reducing yield and increasing susceptibility to fungal infections. L. botrana is among the most economically important insects in Europe and has recently been found in vineyards in Chile, Argentina, and California. Here, we review L. botrana biology and behavior in relation to its larval host (the grapevine) and its natural enemies. We also discuss current and future control strategies in light of our knowledge of chemical ecology, with an emphasis on the use of the sex pheromone-based strategies as an environmentally safe management approach. Pheromone-mediated mating disruption is the most promising technique available on grapes and is currently implemented on approximately 140,000 ha in Europe. Experience from several growing areas confirms the importance of collaboration between research, extension, growers, and pheromone-supply companies for the successful implementation of the mating disruption technique. In the vineyards where mating disruption has been successfully applied as an areawide strategy, the reduction in insecticide use has improved the quality of life for growers, consumers, as well as the public living near wine-growing areas and has thereby reduced the conflict between agricultural and urban communities.

Effect of sex pheromone emission on the attraction of Lobesia botrana

Since the discovery of Lobesia botrana Denis & Schiffermüller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) sex pheromone, it has played an important role in the control and detection of this pest, for example, through the use of pheromone-baited traps and mating disruption techniques. Rubber septa are the most common pheromone dispensers used in monitoring traps, but often dispenser performance is not optimized. The key to improve methods based on pheromones as attractants (monitoring, mass trapping, or ‘attract and kill’) is to know the optimum emission interval, because release rates can strongly affect the attraction. In this work, five levels of pheromone load with different release rates were compared in traps using mesoporous pheromone dispensers to investigate the optimum release rate maximizing L. botrana catches. Residual pheromone loads of the dispensers were extracted and quantified by gas chromatography, to study release profiles and to estimate the various emission levels. The efficacy of pheromone emission was measured in field trials as number of moths caught. A quadratic model was fitted to relate the numbers caught vs. the daily emission rates. The resulting quadratic term was statistically significant, confirming the existence of a relative maximum for L. botrana catches. Taking into account that the trial was carried out only in one location, an optimum emission value of ca. 400 μg per day could be considered to enhance the attraction of L. botrana under West-Mediterranean weather conditions.

Mobile mating disruption of light‐brown apple moths using pheromone‐treated sterile Mediterranean fruit flies

Public opposition to aerial application of sex pheromone for mating disruption of light-brown apple moth (LBAM), Epiphyas postvittana (Walk.), in California stopped its further use in the ca $74 million eradication programme in 2008, underscoring the need for other eradication tactics. It is demonstrated that pheromone-treated sterile Mediterranean fruit flies (medflies), Ceratitis capitata Wied., can disrupt communication in male moths. Medflies topically dosed with moth pheromone (E)-11-tetradecenyl acetate showed a no observed effect level (NOEL) of ~10 µg fly(-1) , with increasing toxicity from 30 to 100 µg fly(-1) . Greater potency and longevity of attraction and lower mortality were achieved using microencapsulated pheromone. Releases of 1000 pheromone-treated medflies ha(-1) prevented male moth catch to synthetic lures in treated 4 ha plots for 1 day in suburban Perth, Australia. Releases of ca 3000 pheromone-treated medflies ha(-1) disrupted catch to single female moths in delta traps, and to synthetic pheromone lures. Percentage disruption on the first four nights was 95, 91, 82 and 85%. Disruption of moth catch using pheromone-treated medflies is a novel development that, with future improvement, might provide a socially acceptable approach for application of the insect mating disruption technique to control invasive insects in urban environments. Adequacy of payload and other issues require resolution.

Control of the pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella by the mating disruption technique on cotton in a semi-arid region of Turkey

This study evaluated the effectiveness of mating disruption pheromones for the pink bollworm (PBW) Pectinophora gossypiella (Saund.) (Lep.: Gelechiidae) and determined the damage levels of cotton plants in Turkey in 2007 and 2008. Adult populations were monitored by pheromone traps, with 250 pieces ha−1 of PBW rope dispensers used for each treated field of approximately 12 ha. Calculations were based on comparing cotton yield in the control field with that in treated fields. The PB-Rope L dispensers significantly decreased both number of males in the pheromone traps and cotton boll damage. Results showed that PB-Rope L dispenser application during the square period of cotton plants effectively reduced damage. Cotton yield of treated fields was increased compared with control fields by 20.28% and 10.28% in 2007 and 2008, respectively. Infestation ratios were determined by comparing cotton bolls collected from treated fields with bolls from control fields; the results were 25% and 15% for control fields and 16% and 4% for treated fields in 2007 and 2008, respectively. Larval densities in the control fields were higher than those in the treated fields in both years. Results showed that the PB-Rope L dispensers released pheromone satisfactorily to disrupt pest mating.

Investigations on Efficiency of Mating Disruption Technique Against the European Grapevine Moth (Lobesia botrana Den. Et. Schiff.) (Lepidoptera; Tortricidae) in Vineyard, Turkey

Investigations on Efficiency of Mating Disruption Technique Against the European Grapevine Moth (Lobesia botrana Den. Et. Schiff.) (Lepidoptera; Tortricidae) in Vineyard, Turkey

먹이트랩과 교미교란제 테두리처리를 통한 복숭아순나방 (Grapholita molesta (Busck)) 교미교란 상승효과

사과에 피해를 주는 복숭아순나방(Grapholita molesta)을 방제하기 위해서 합성 성페로몬을 이용한 교미교란 처리 기술이 이용되고 있다. 그러나 비교적 작은 규모의 사과원들이 인근에 몰려있고 이들의 경영이 독자적인 국내 상황을 고려할 때 이러한 교미교란제 처리에 의존한 복숭아순나방 방제 효율성에 의구심을 갖게 한다. 이는 인근의 교미교란제를 처리하지 않은 지역에서 교미한 복숭아순나방 암컷의 유입 가능성이 있기 때문이다. 본 연구는 특정 교미교란제 처리 지역에 있어 교미교란 효과의 사각지대를 줄이고 교미한 암컷을 포획할 수 있는 테두리처리 기술을 개발하였다. 본 테두리처리 기술은 사과원 가장자리에 10 미터 간격으로 각각 교미교란제와 먹이트랩을 설치하면서 이러한 방제 효과를 거두려하였다. 교미교란제 처리와 더불어 태두리처리는 교미교란제만 처리한 포장에 비해 복숭아순나방에 의한 신초 및 과실에 미치는 피해를 뚜렷하게 줄일 수 있었다. 또한 본 연구는 이러한 교미교란제 처리의 효율을 높이기 위해 연중 처리 횟수를 결정하였다. 사과 재배 전체 기간을 통해 교미교란 효과를 유지하는 데 교미교란제 처리는 테두리처리와 함께 3월 말과 7월 초의 2회 처리가 필요하였다. Mating disruption (MD) using synthetic sex pheromone lures has been used to control the Oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), in apple orchards. In Korea, where several small apple orchards are clustered but independently managed, its efficacy has been suspected mainly due to immigration of any mated females from nearby untreated cultivating areas. This study developed an edge treatment technique to decrease any local MD-free zones in a specific MD-treated farm and to trap any immigrating mated females by installing MD lures and food traps around the apple farm with 10 meter intervals. The addition of the edge treatment to the MD significantly prevented leaf and fruit damages induced by G. molesta compared to MD only. Moreover, this study tried to optimize the MD control technique by determining frequency of MD application. It suggests two MD applications with the edge treatment at the end of March and at the early of July to be effective throughout the entire apple growing seasons.

Isca tóxica e disrupção sexual no controle da mosca-da-fruta sul-americana e da mariposa-oriental em pessegueiro

O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o emprego simultâneo de isca tóxica e da técnica de disrupção sexual, com uso de feromônio sexual, para o controle de Anastrepha fraterculus e Grapholita molesta, em pomar comercial de pessegueiro. Foram utilizados três pomares de 0,5 ha, com os seguintes tratamentos: pomar 1, manejo com isca tóxica (Biofruit 3% + Malathion 500 CE a 200 mL por 100 L), aplicada nas plantas da borda do pomar quando o nível de controle era atingido, e uso da disrupção sexual por meio da aplicação de feromônio (Splat Grafo) em 1.000 pontos por ha; pomar 2, manejo convencional, constituído por pulverizações com inseticidas de contato e ingestão de 2 a 3 vezes ao ano; pomar 3, testemunha, sem controle. A população de adultos das duas espécies e o dano em ponteiros e frutos foram monitorados nas safras 2007/2008 e 2008/2009. O uso simultâneo da isca tóxica e da técnica de disrupção sexual reduziu em mais de 90% a captura de adultos de A. fraterculus e G. molesta. Nas duas safras, os danos reduziram de 62-85% em ponteiros, e de 98-99% nos frutos, em comparação à testemunha sem controle.

Efficacy of Mating Disruption for Control of the Coffee Leaf Miner

The coffee leaf miner, Leucoptera coffeella (Guerin-Meneville) (Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae), is the main pest of coffee plantations in Brazil. Indiscriminate chemical control has been used frequently to control the attack of L. coffeella, causing serious problems to the environment. To avoid such problems, new techniques have been developed to control the attack of this pest. A technique to control lepidopteran pests, called mating disruption, aims to obstruct the communication among sexual partners. The potential of pheromone-mediated mating disruption for control of leaf miner population was evaluated in a coffee plantation in Patrocinio-MG, Brazil. Three experimental areas were installed: 20 ha plot treated with synthetic sex pheromone; another 20 ha plot with insecticide applications and 20 ha plot maintained as control. The pheromone plot was treated with 400 pheromone dispensers with 1g of 5,9-dimethylpentadecane per dispenser. The efficacy of mating disruption was evaluated by the comparison of number of males caught in delta traps (20 traps per plot) baited with 0.5 mg of 5,9 - dimethylpentadecane. The number of mined leaves was also recorded in each plot. The presence of pheromone did not reduce the number of males caught nor decreased the number of mined leaves in the plot. The failure of the mating disruption technique may be attributed to a combination of several factors, such as composition and dose of the pheromone and its formulation, the moment of application in the crop, the population density at the begin of the experiment and climatic factors.

The first account of the mating disruption technique for the control of California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii Maskell (Homoptera: Diaspididae) using new biodegradable dispensers

Semiochemical-based pest management programs have been increasingly used to provide environmentally friendly methods for the control of major insect pests. The efficacy of the mating disruption technique has been demonstrated for several moth pests. Unfortunately, not many experiments on mating disruption to control diaspididae species have been documented. In this work, biodegradable dispensers for mating disruption with increasing pheromone loads were used in order to study the potential of this technique for the control of Aonidiella aurantii Maskell. Field trial results demonstrated that dispensers loaded with 50 mg (a.i.) (20 g ha-1) and 100 mg (a.i.) (40 g ha-1) of sex pheromone were the most suitable, achieving significant reductions in male catches, compared to an untreated plot. In treated plots, virtually a 70% reduction in damage to fruit was recorded. Pheromone release profiles of all the dispensers were also studied under field conditions. We found that emission values >250 microg day-1 were the most suitable. This study suggests a new biodegradable dispenser capable of interfering with normal A. aurantii chemical communication. The use of mating disruption as a control method against A. aurantii is discussed.

Control of Lobesia botrana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in vineyards in Cyprus using the Mating Disruption Technique

The Isonet-L pheromone dispensers were applied in 2004–2006 in an organic table grape vineyard aiming to control the European Grapevine moth Lobesia botrana (Den.&Schiff.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Laboratory analysis showed that almost 50% of the pheromone in the dispensers was released during April and May, while another 25% was released in June alone. A high rate of bunch damage in the untreated vineyard was observed throughout the trial, reaching 40.8, 59.6 and 64.4% in 2004, 2005 and 2006, respectively. At the same time, bunch damage in the treated field was 6.8, 6.0, and 10.4% for the same years, respectively. Damage caused by L. botrana in the treated vineyard was significantly lower compared to the damage in the control field. In 2004, bunch damage was estimated at 0.68 ± 0.36 and 4.08 ± 0.36 in the treated and the control vineyards, respectively. Significant differences were also observed in 2005, where damage was estimated at 0.6 ± 0.32 in the treated and 5.96 ± 0.32 in the untreated plot, while in 2006, these values were 1.04 ± 0.33 and 6.44 ± 0.33 in the treated and the control vineyards, respectively. Significant statistical differences were observed regarding bunch damage in the border and centre of the treated vineyard in 2004 and 2006, where the bunch damage values were estimated at 0.52 ± 0.13 and 0.8 ± 0.17 in the border, and 0.16 ± 0.07 and 0.24 ± 0.08 in the centre of the treated vineyard, respectively. Statistical differences ( P < 0.0001) were also obtained when bunch damage was assessed between the treated and untreated vineyards across the trial years, where damage was estimated at 0.77 ± 0.20 and 5.49 ± 0.20 in the treated plot and the control, respectively.

A New Long-Life Trimedlure Dispenser for Mediterranean Fruit Fly

New agricultural techniques are attempting to reduce the application of synthesized pesticides and replace them with new environmentally friendly methods such as mass trapping, mating disruption, or chemosterilization techniques. All these methods are based on the release of a lure for insect attraction or confusion. The success of the chosen method depends on the quality of the attractant emission from the dispenser. Currently, used dispensers with a polymeric matrix and new dispensers with mesoporous inorganic materials were evaluated to obtain more efficient emission kinetics. In this study, the selected pest was the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) and the lure used was trimedlure (TML). The dispensers were validated by means of a field study comparing insect catches with attractant release values. As a result, we have demonstrated that mesoporous dispensers have a clearly longer lifetime than the polymeric plug. Furthermore, the attractant release rate is less dependent on temperature in mesoporous than in polymeric dispensers.

RAPD 분자지표를 이용한 복숭아순나방(Grapholita molesta)의 집단 유전적 변동 분석

복숭아순나방(Grapholita molesta)은 사과에 주요 해충이다. 이 해충을 환경친화형 방법으로 방제하기 위해 성페로몬을 이용한 교미교란제 처리 기술이 개발되고 있다. 광범위한 영역에 대한 교미교란제의 처리는 복숭아순나방 방제에 효과적이나 이러한 광범위영역에 대한 구체적 크기를 결정하는 방법은 알려지지 않았다. 이를 결정하기 위해서는 복숭아순나방의 교미행동 범위를 결정할 수 있는 방법이 개발되어야 하며, 이를 위해 복숭아순나방의 이동을 추적할 수 있는 분자지표의 개발이 필요하게 되었다. 본 연구는 RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA) 기술을 이용하여 효과적인 두 개의 분자지표를 개발하였다. 상이한 지역과 시기에 따라 구분되는 야외 복숭아순나방 집단들에 대해서 이들 분자지표를 이용하여 집단 유전 분석이 실시되었다 이들 분자지표들은 특정지역에서 복숭아순나방 집단들이 시기적으로 유전적 조성에 뚜렷한 차이를 보여 주었다. 또한 서로 다른 지역의 복숭아순나방 집단들은 거리에 따라 상대적으로 차이가 증가하였지만, 계절이 진행함에 따라 그 차이가 감소하였다. Oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta, is a serious pest on apples. To control this pest in an environmentally friendly method, mating disruption strategy using sex pheromone has been developed. Area-wide application of mating disruption has been needed to be effective, with little understanding on how much size of apple cultivating area should be treated in one time application of the mating disruption technique. On this matter, we needed to determine a minimal mating active zone of G. molesta that should be applied with mating disrupters to be effective. Molecular markers to discriminate a specific population should be developed to trace population migration for reproductive behaviors. Here we developed two effective molecular markers using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique. Different field populations of G. molesta, based on locations and seasons, were analyzed with these markers. In a specific location, G. molesta populations varied in genetic composition with different seasons. Different local populations showed differential variation according to their relative distances among apple orchards. In overall, genetic variation among different populations became lessen with progression of seasons.

Confusão sexual para o controle de Grapholita molesta (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), em pomares de macieira, em Fraiburgo (SC), Brasil

O controle de Grapholita molesta (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) foi avaliado pela técnica de confusão sexual em macieira no município de Fraiburgo (SC). A formulação do feromônio sintético utilizada foi da marca Quant G.m. (400 mg do acetato de (Z/E) - 8 - dodecenila 14% p/v), com 500 difusores por hectare, distribuídos em um pomar de macieira comercial 'Fuji' de 2,52 ha. O tratamento com confusão sexual foi comparado com a testemunha convencional. O monitoramento para moscas-das-frutas, Anastrepha fraterculus (Diptera: Tephritidae); mariposa oriental, Grapholita molesta e lagarta enroladeira, Bonagota cranaodes (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) foi realizado para decidir se haveria necessidade de pulverização de inseticidas. Não houve capturas de G. molesta na armadilha do Tipo Delta, instalada no tratamento com confusão sexual até 93 dias após a liberação do feromônio. Nesse período, realizaram-se duas pulverizações para moscas-das-frutas e lagarta-enroladeira no tratamento com confusão sexual e oito pulverizações no tratamento convencional. Os danos causados por G. molesta em ambos os tratamentos não ultrapassaram 0,5%, mesmo com a redução de 77% dos inseticidas no tratamento com confusão sexual. Verifica-se, portanto, que a técnica de confusão sexual é eficiente para o controle de G. molesta.

Codling Moth Management and Chemical Ecology

Lepidopteran insects use sex pheromones to communicate for mating. Olfactory communication and mate-finding can be prevented by permeating the atmosphere with synthetic pheromone. Pheromone-mediated mating disruption has become a commercially viable pest management technique and is used to control the codling moth, Cydia pomonella, a key insect pest of apple, on 160,000 ha worldwide. The codling moth sex pheromone, codlemone, is species specific and nontoxic. Orchard treatments with up to 100 grams of synthetic codlemone per hectare effectively control codling moth populations over the entire growing season. Practical implementation of the mating disruption technique has been realized at an opportune time, as codling moth has become resistant to many insecticides. We review codling moth chemical ecology and factors underlying the behavioral mechanisms and practical implementation of mating disruption. Area-wide programs are the result of collaborative efforts between academic research institutions, extension, chemical industries, and grower organizations, and they demonstrate the environmental and economic relevance of pheromone research.

Courtship behaviour in the sandfly Lutzomyia longipalpis, the New World vector of visceral leishmaniasis

Courtship behaviour in Lutzomyia longipalpis Lutz and Neiva (Diptera: Psychodidae) was examined to determine the sequence of behaviours that occur prior to copulation. Courtship consisted of a series of male and female touching and wing-flapping behaviours, with males performing a greater variety of wing-flapping behaviours than previously described. Occurrence of male approach-flapping, semi-circling and female stationary-flapping were all predictors of eventual copulation, and may coincide with the dispersal of pheromones or the production of auditory signals important to courtship. Touching occurred in the majority of observations, with contact most often made with the tips of the legs and antennae. This behaviour, not previously described in sandflies, was initiated by males and females, and may indicate the use of contact pheromones, a form of communication previously overlooked in L. longipalpis. Future studies are required to separate the auditory and chemical signals associated with wing-flapping, and to confirm whether L. longipalpis possesses cuticular hydrocarbons capable of inducing behavioural responses. The identification of signals that inhibit sexual behaviour during courtship may be particularly relevant to developing mating disruption techniques against L. longipalpis.