Maternal Touch Research Articles

Vocal and Tactile Input to Children Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing.

Purpose Caregivers may show greater use of nonauditory signals in interactions with children who are deaf or hard of hearing (DHH). This study explored the frequency of maternal touch and the temporal alignment of touch with speech in the input to children who are DHH and age-matched peers with normal hearing. Method We gathered audio and video recordings of mother-child free-play interactions. Maternal speech units were annotated from audio recordings, and touch events were annotated from video recordings. Analyses explored the frequency and duration of touch events and the temporal alignment of touch with speech. Results Greater variance was observed in the frequency of touch and its total duration in the input to children who are DHH. Furthermore, touches produced by mothers of children who are DHH were significantly more likely to be aligned with speech than touches produced by mothers of children with normal hearing. Conclusion Caregivers' modifications in the input to children who are DHH are observed in the combination of speech with touch. The implications for such patterns and how they may impact children's attention and access to the speech signal are discussed.

Does touch matter? The impact of stroking versus non-stroking maternal touch on cardio-respiratory processes in mothers and infants

The beneficial effects of touch in development were already observed in different types of skin-to-skin care. In the current study, we aimed at studying potential underlying mechanisms of these effects in terms of parasympatho-inhibitory regulation. We examined the specific impact of affective maternal stroking versus non-stroking touch on the cardio-respiration of both mothers and infants in terms of respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA). We compared a 3-min TOUCH PERIOD (stroking or non-stroking touch) with a baseline before (PRE-TOUCH) and after (POST-TOUCH) in 45 dyads (24 stroking/21 non-stroking touch) with infants aged 4–16 weeks. We registered mother-infant ECG, respiration and made video-recordings. We calculated RR-interval (RRI), respiration rate (fR) and (respiratory corrected) RSA and analyzed stroking mean velocity rate (MVR) of the mothers. ANOVA-tests showed a significant different impact on infants' respiratory corrected RSA of stroking touch (increase) versus non-stroking touch (decrease). Further, during and after stroking touch, RRI significantly increased whereas fR significantly decreased. Non-stroking touch had no significant impact on infants' RRI and fR. In the mothers, RRI significantly decreased and fR significantly increased during the TOUCH PERIOD. The mothers' MVR occurred within the range of 1–10 cm/s matching with the optimal afferent stimulation range of a particular class of cutaneous unmyelinated, low-threshold mechano-sensitive nerves, named c-tactile (CT) afferents. We suggest CT afferents to be the a potential missing link between the processing of affective touch and the development of physiological and emotional self-regulation. The results are discussed with regard to the potential role of CT afferents within the building of early self-regulation as part of a multisensory intuitive parenting system and the importance to respect this ecological context of an infant in research and clinical applications.

Family nurture intervention for preterm infants facilitates positive mother-infant face-to-face engagement at 4 months.

Although preterm infants are at risk for social deficits, interventions to improve mother-infant interaction in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) are not part of standard care (SC). Study participants were a subset from a randomized controlled trial of a new intervention for premature infants, the Family Nurture Intervention (FNI), designed to help mothers and infants establish an emotional connection. At infants' 4 months corrected age, mother-infant face-to-face interaction was filmed and coded on a 1-s time base for mother touch, infant vocal affect, mother gaze, and infant gaze. Time-series models assessed self- and interactive contingency. Comparing FNI to SC dyads, FNI mothers showed more touch and calmer touch patterns, and FNI infants showed more angry-protest but less cry. In maternal touch self-contingency, FNI mothers were more likely to sustain positive touch and to repair moments of negative touch by transitioning to positive touch. In maternal touch interactive contingency, when infants looked at mothers, FNI mothers were likely to respond with more positive touch. In infant vocal affect self-contingency, FNI infants were more likely to sustain positive vocal affect and to transition from negative to positive vocal affect. In maternal gaze interactive contingency, following infants' looking at mother, FNI mothers of male infants were more likely to look at their sons. In maternal gaze self-contingency, following mothers' looking away, FNI mothers of male infants were more likely to look at their sons. Documentation of positive effects of the FNI for 4-month mother-infant face-to-face communication is useful clinically and has important implications for an improved developmental trajectory of these infants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Depressed and non-depressed mothers’ touching during social interactions with their infants

Touch is a critical channel of communication used by mothers to communicate and interact with their infants and to contribute to their infants’ socio-emotional development. The present study examined maternal touching in 41 mothers with and without depressive symptomatology. Mothers and their 4-month-old infants participated in the Still-Face (maternal emotional unavailability) and Separation (maternal physical unavailability) procedures. Maternal touching behaviours were video-recorded and coded using the Caregiver Infant Touch Scale (CITS). Results indicated that mothers with higher levels of depressive symptoms engaged in less touching following the perturbation period in the Still-Face procedure, whereas mothers with lower levels of depressive symptoms maintained stable levels of touching across both interaction periods. Mothers with higher levels of depressive symptoms displayed less playful/stimulating types of touching. Taken together, these results underscore the importance of touch and suggest key differences in touching behaviour between dyads with maternal depressive symptomatology and those without.

The mindedness of maternal touch: An investigation of maternal mind-mindedness and mother-infant touch interactions

Increasing evidence shows that maternal touch may promote emotion regulation in infants, however less is known about how parental higher-order social cognition abilities are translated into tactile, affect-regulatory behaviours towards their infants. During 10 min book-reading, mother-infant sessions when infants were 12 months old (N = 45), we investigated maternal mind-mindedness (MM), the social cognitive ability to understand an infant’s mental state, by coding the contingency of maternal verbal statements towards the infants’ needs and desires. We also rated spontaneous tactile interactions in terms of their emotional contingency. We found that frequent non-attuned mind-related comments were associated with touch behaviours that were not contingent with the infant’s emotions; ultimately discouraging affective tactile responses from the infant. However, comments that were more appropriate to infant’s mental states did not necessarily predict more emotionally-contingent tactile behaviours. These findings suggest that when parental high-order social cognitive abilities are compromised, they are also likely to translate into inappropriate, tactile attempts to regulate infant’s emotions.

Frequency of Maternal Touch Predicts Resting Activity and Connectivity of the Developing Social Brain.

Frequency of Maternal Touch Predicts Resting Activity and Connectivity of the Developing Social Brain.

Maternal touch in caregiving behavior of mothers with and without postpartum depression

The way a mother touches her infant plays a central role in maternal caregiving behavior. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to examine associations between touch and positive and negative caregiving behavior and whether this association differed in mothers with and without postpartum depression, an episode of depressive disorder following childbirth. Positive caregiving behavior was operationalized as sensitive behavior, i.e. the mother’s ability to notice the child’s signals, interpret these signals correctly and respond to them promptly and appropriately. Negative caregiving behavior was operationalized as overriding behavior, i.e. behavior which disturbs the child’s behavior or redirects the child’s attention to follow the parent’s agenda. Seventy mother-infant dyads (44 in the nonclinical group and 26 in the clinical group) participated in a 10minutes long mother-infant interaction at four months postpartum. The sample is part of an archival dataset of a longitudinal study investigating the parent-child relationship and child development. Three minutes of the interaction were coded a) microanalytically for touch, using a modified version of the Maternal Touch Scale (Beebe et al., 2010), and b) macroanalytically for sensitive and overriding behavior, using the Coding Interactive Behavior measure (Feldman, 1998). Hierarchical regression analyses with bootstrapping showed that caregiving touch, but not affectionate and static touch, was associated with sensitive behavior across the whole sample. Moreover, playful, but not rough-intrusive touch, was associated with overriding behavior across the whole sample. Associations did not differ between mothers with and without postpartum depression.

Testosterone, oxytocin, and the development of human parental care

The steroid testosterone (T) and neuropeptide oxytocin (OT) have each been implicated in the development of parental care in humans and animals, yet very little research addressed the interaction between these hormones at the transition to parenthood in mothers and fathers. One hundred and sixty mothers and fathers (80 couples) were visited 1 and 6months after the birth of their first child, plasma OT and T were assayed at each time-point, and interactions between each parent and the infant were observed and micro-coded for two key parental behaviors; affectionate touch and parent-infant synchrony. T showed gender-specific effects. While paternal T was individually stable across the first six months of parenting and predicted lower father-infant synchrony, maternal T was neither stable nor predictive of maternal behavior. An interaction of OT and T showed that T has complex modulatory effects on the relations of OT and parenting. Slope analysis revealed that among fathers, only when T was high (+1SD), negative associations emerged between OT and father affectionate touch. In contrast, among mothers, the context of high T was related to a positive association between OT and maternal touch. Our findings, the first to test the interaction of OT and T in relation to observed maternal behavior, underscore the need for much further research on the complex bidirectional effects of steroid and neuropeptide systems on human mothering and fathering.

Mutual regulation between infant facial affect and maternal touch in depressed and nondepressed dyads

The ability to regulate affect is important for later adaptive child development. In the first months of life, infants have limited resources for regulating their own affects (e.g. by gaze aversion), and for this reason they are dependent on external affect regulation from their parents. Previous research suggests that touch is an important means through which parents regulate their infants’ affects. Also, previous research has shown that post-partum depressed (PPD) mothers and nonclinical mothers differ in their touching behaviors when interacting with their infants. We examined the affect-regulating function of affectionate, caregiving and playful maternal touch in 24 PPD and 47 nonclinical mother-infant dyads when infants were four months old. In order to investigate the direction of effects and to account for repeated observations, the data were analysed using time-window sequential analysis and Generalized Estimating Equations. The results showed that mothers adapt their touching behaviors according to negative infant facial affect; thus, when the infant displays negative facial affect, the mothers were less likely to initiate playful touch and more likely to initiate caregiving touch. Unexpectedly, only in the PPD dyads, were the mothers more likely to initiate affectionate touch when their infants were displaying negative facial affect. Our results also showed that mothers use specific touch types to regulate infants’ negative and positive affects; infants are more likely to initiate positive affect during periods with playful touch, and more likely to terminate negative affect during periods with caregiving touch.

Maternal touch and infant affect in the Still Face Paradigm: A cross-cultural examination

Touch between mother and infant plays an important role in development starting from birth. Cross-cultural differences surrounding rearing practices have an influence on parent-infant interaction, including types of touch used and the development of emotional regulation. This study was designed to investigate maternal touch and infant emotional regulation in infant-mother dyads from Ecuador (n=25) and Hispanic dyads from the United States (US) (n=26). Mothers and their 4-month-old full-term infants participated in the Still Face Paradigm. Second-by-second coding of maternal touch and infant affect was completed. Overall the analyses showed that Ecuadorian mothers used more nurturing and accompaniment touch and less attention seeking touch than US Hispanic mothers during the pre-stressor (baseline) episode. Lagged multilevel models were used to investigate the effect of the different types of touch on infant emotional regulation in the groups for the episodes. The data suggest that playful touch had a significant increase in infant affect, whereas accompaniment and attention-seeking touch had a significant decrease in infant affect. Overall, this study provides support for the role of touch in mother-infant synchronicity in relation to infant’s emotional regulation. Identifying touch that is more calming is important to foster emotional regulation in infancy, which can have important implications for development.

Maternal touch predicts social orienting in young children

This study explored the relationship between maternal touch and a child's spontaneous orienting towards social versus non-social information. Thirty-nine mothers and their 4–6year old children participated in a 10-min play session. Following this session, children completed an object categorization task with face and house distractors. A social orienting index (SOI) was quantified as increased distraction by faces relative to houses. The frequency of maternal touch positively predicted the SOI and some touch actions (e.g., holding) were more relevant for this than others (e.g., pushing). The frequency of maternal vocalizations, recorded as a control behavior, had a non-significant relation with the SOI but was negatively associated with the children's object categorization accuracy. Together, these results point to a specific role of tactile care in the development of social orienting and the emerging “social brain”.

Frequency of Maternal Touch Predicts Resting Activity and Connectivity of the Developing Social Brain.

Previous behavioral research points to a positive relationship between maternal touch and early social development. Here, we explored the brain correlates of this relationship. The frequency of maternal touch was recorded for 43 five-year-old children during a 10 min standardized play session. Additionally, all children completed a resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging session. Investigating the default mode network revealed a positive relation between the frequency of maternal touch and activity in the right posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS) extending into the temporo-parietal junction. Using this effect as a seed in a functional connectivity analysis identified a network including extended bilateral regions along the temporal lobe, bilateral frontal cortex, and left insula. Compared with children with low maternal touch, children with high maternal touch showed additional connectivity with the right dorso-medial prefrontal cortex. Together these results support the notion that childhood tactile experiences shape the developing “social brain” with a particular emphasis on a network involved in mentalizing.

MATERNAL DEPRESSION AND CHILD OXYTOCIN RESPONSE; MODERATION BY MATERNAL OXYTOCIN AND RELATIONAL BEHAVIOR.

Maternal postpartum depression (PPD) carries long-term detrimental effects on children's well-being, yet the mechanisms of transmission remain unclear. One possible pathway of vulnerability involves the oxytocinergic (OT) system, which is transferred from mother to child via sensitive caregiving and is disrupted in PPD. A large birth cohort (N = 1983) of women were repeatedly assessed for depression from birth to 6 years. Utilizing an extreme case design, two matched cohorts were formed; mothers chronically depressed from birth to 6 years and nondepressed controls (N = 97, depressed = 41, nondepressed; N = 56). At 6 years, mothers and children underwent psychiatric diagnosis, urinary OT was assayed from mother and child before and after social contact, and mother-child interactions were coded. Baseline OT and OT response of mother and child were interrelated and children of depressed mothers showed low baseline OT and attenuated OT response. Child OT response was negatively predicted by maternal depression, child Axis-I psychopathology, maternal expressed negative affect, and child social withdrawal. Interaction effect of maternal baseline OT and depression emerged. Slope analysis indicated that when maternal OT was medium or low, child OT response was negatively impacted by maternal depression. However, when maternal OT was high, child OT was unaffected, suggesting that maternal OT functionality buffers the effects of depression on the child. Results suggest involvement of the OT system in the cross-generational transfer of vulnerability, as well as resilience, from depressed mothers to their children. Because the OT system is open to interventions that enhance maternal touch and contact, findings have important implications for targeted early dyadic inventions.

Fetal Behavioural Responses to Maternal Voice and Touch.

BackgroundAlthough there is data on the spontaneous behavioural repertoire of the fetus, studies on their behavioural responses to external stimulation are scarce.Aim, MethodsThe aim of the current study was to measure fetal behavioural responses in reaction to maternal voice; to maternal touch of the abdomen compared to a control condition, utilizing 3D real-time (4D) sonography. Behavioural responses of 23 fetuses (21st to 33rd week of gestation; N = 10 in the 2nd and N = 13 in the 3rd trimester) were frame-by-frame coded and analyzed in the three conditions.ResultsResults showed that fetuses displayed more arm, head, and mouth movements when the mother touched her abdomen and decreased their arm and head movements to maternal voice. Fetuses in the 3rd trimester showed increased regulatory (yawning), resting (arms crossed) and self-touch (hands touching the body) responses to the stimuli when compared to fetuses in the 2nd trimester.ConclusionIn summary, the results from this study suggest that fetuses selectively respond to external stimulation earlier than previously reported, fetuses actively regulated their behaviours as a response to the external stimulation, and that fetal maturation affected the emergence of these differential responses to the environment.

Can You Help When It Hurts? Dogs as Potential Pain Relief Stimuli for Children with Profound Intellectual and Multiple Disabilities

Dear Editor, As it is widely recognized, individuals with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities (PIMDs), who are characterized by severe or profound motor disabilities combined with profound cognitive and sensory impairments [1], are at a significant high risk of pain from many sources, including daily care activities, medical procedures, and illness (e.g., [2,3]). Among the nonpharmacological interventions that have already been proposed for alleviating pain in individuals with significant neurologic impairments, increasing attention is currently being devoted to animal-assisted therapy (AAT) programs as effective pain relief interventions [4]. In this letter, we report first experimental data on the potential of therapy dogs as pain relief stimuli for children with PIMD. Given the lack of literature on AAT programs specifically developed for these individuals, we consider that the results here presented may constitute a promising platform to support further investigations. An exploratory study—approved by the Ethics Committee of the O'Porto University—was conducted aiming at assessing, in two children with PIMD, apparent pain relief induced by contact with a therapy dog immediately after a potentially painful care moment. Given the highly limited communication repertoire of the participants (and of children with PIMD in general), only behavioral (following Putten and Vlaskamp [3] and Green and Reid [5]) and heart rate (following Corff et al. [6]) measures were used to estimate pain levels. As to offer a comparison to pain alleviation that might be achieved through maternal touch, responses of the participants to contact with their mothers were …

Investigating Maternal Touch and Infants' Self‐Regulatory Behaviours during a Modified Face‐to‐Face Still‐Face with Touch Procedure

Maternal touch and infants' self‐regulatory behaviours were examined during a modified Still‐Face with Touch (SF + T) procedure. Mothers and their 5½‐month‐old infants participated in one period of Normal interaction followed by three SF + T periods. Maternal functions of touch, and infants' self‐regulatory behaviour, affect, and attention were evaluated. Contrary to a typical SF procedure, the amount of smiling remained high while fretting remained low. High levels of maternal touching and variations in the functions of maternal touch were observed across periods. Playful touch remained high while there was an increase in nurturing touch and a decrease in attention‐getting touch from the Normal to all SF + T periods. Similar amounts of self‐regulatory behaviours were observed across periods with the exception of a decrease in bidirectional exchanges during the SF + T periods. Finally, across periods, maternal touch and infants' self‐regulatory behaviours were found to be temporally organized with infants' affect and attention. Examining how mothers use touch when other forms of communication are absent increased our understanding of the role of touch in infants' emotion regulation. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Maternal Touch Moderates Sex Differences in Juvenile Social Play Behavior

Additional somatosensory contact of preterm human infants improves a variety of developmental assessment scores, but less is known about its lasting consequences. In rodents, maternal contact may influence the programming of juvenile social play behavior. Therefore, we used a paradigm where we can control the levels of somatosensory contact associated with maternal care. We find that additional somatosensory contact of offspring can have lasting consequences on juvenile social play behavior in a sex-dependent manner. Specifically, additional somatosensory stimuli reduced male social play behavior, but did not change female play behavior. We then examined if this additional infant contact altered some neurobiological substrates associated with play within the juvenile amygdala. Control males had lower levels of 5HT2a receptor mRNA levels contrasted to females; however, similar to its sex-dependent effect on juvenile social play, males that received additional somatosensory contact had higher serotonin 5HT2a receptor mRNA levels than control males. No difference was found in females. As serotonin signaling typically opposes juvenile play behavior, these data suggest that maternal touch can program lasting differences in juvenile social play and 5HT2a receptors mRNA levels within the juvenile amygdala.

Full-term and very-low-birth-weight preterm infants’ self-regulating behaviors during a Still-Face interaction: Influences of maternal touch

The present study was designed to examine maternal touch and infants’ self-regulating behavior in full-term and very-low-birth-weight preterm (VLBW/PT) infant–mother dyads. Mothers and their 5½-month-old full-term (n=40) and VLBW/PT (n=40) infants participated in a Still-Face (SF) procedure. Mothers used high levels of touching (82% of the interaction) and the functions of touch changed across periods. More attention-getting touch was used during the Normal period and more nurturing and playful touch during the Reunion Normal period. Mothers of VLBW/PT infants engaged in more playful touch across periods. Similar amounts of self-regulatory behaviors were observed for both groups across all three periods; however, full-term infants exhibited greater self-comfort regulatory behaviors during the Reunion Normal period. Finally, for both groups the presence and quality of maternal touch were associated with infants’ self-regulating behavior; thus providing evidence for the regulatory roles of maternal touch. These findings underscore how both maternal touch and infants’ self-regulating behaviors are important and effective components of infants’ emotion regulation.

Effects of maternal parity, depression and stress on two-month-old infant expression of pain

Objective: This study investigates effects of maternal parity, mental health and frequency of touch on infant distress expressed during routine vaccination, as well as the ability of mothers to assess infant pain. Methods: 50 mothers (19 first-time mothers, 23 stressed, 8 depressed) and their 2-month-old infants (mean age 8.1 weeks, range 7–9 weeks) were videotaped during routine immunisation for off-line-analysis. Infant- related pain behaviours were coded before, during and after needle insertion. Maternal touch was coded throughout the immunisation procedure and maternal estimates of infant pain were established immediately after the procedure. Results: Infants of first-time mothers showed significantly more pain before the needle insertion as well as during the first vaccination, compared with infants of experienced mothers. In contrast to expectation, maternal mental health status and type of touch did not influence the level of pain expressed by infants. Mothers consistently overestimated infant pain and their assessments were poorly correlated with observed infant pain behaviours. Conclusion: These findings suggest that maternal parity may influence infant pain expression before vaccination. However, all mothers overestimate their infant’s pain. Further studies are required to resolve conflicting findings in this field of research, as findings may have policy implications in promoting adherence to the vaccination schedule.

Maternagem: estratégia de prevenção em saúde para formação de sujeitos saudáveis

Após o primeiro ano de experiência do Núcleo de Apoio à Saúde da Família (NASF), realizou-se uma análise das principais demandas ou sintomas. Na população infantil, observaram-se dificuldades relacionadas à linguagem, aprendizagem, comportamento e vinculação. Na população adulta, foram encontradas dificuldades relacionadas à autonomia no processo saúde/doença, corpo e resolução de conflitos. Com base nas diretrizes da Atenção Básica, elaborou-se uma intervenção para lidar com as queixas provenientes dos vínculos frágeis que constituem as relações parentais, acarretando consequências para o desenvolvimento ou formação dos sujeitos. Para tanto, criou-se o grupo de Maternagem, que se trata da atividade de cuidar que propicia à criança atenção necessária e suporte emocional para um desenvolvimento neuropsicomotor saudável. Trata-se de um grupo terapêutico-educativo. Em relação às mães, observou-se mudança no posicionamento em relação à educação e colocação de limites, elaboração de conflitos familiares, reflexão sobre sua relação com seus pais, aprimoramento da escuta e vinculação. Nos bebês, observou-se melhora na vinculação, na aceitação do toque materno e nos limites, maior tranquilidade e aprimoramento das habilidades neuropsicomotoras. O desafio é tratar de maternagem com sujeitos que foram pouco maternados, portanto, vulneráveis, pouco autônomos, com dificuldade de estabelecer relações pautadas na confiança/segurança. Em muitos momentos, as mães é que são maternadas, ressignificando seus primeiros vínculos, recuperando o brincar e a fantasia. Acredita-se que a mudança do sujeito-mãe possa ocorrer por meio da transformação da relação mãe-bebê, o que será determinante na formação do sujeito-bebê e possibilitará a ressignificação das relações familiares, produzindo saúde.