Maternal Resources Research Articles

Rh disease in Mexico: evaluating regional and institutional differences in treatment availability and disease management.

Rh disease occurs following maternal alloimmunization, which can develop due to RhD blood group antigen incompatibility between a mother and her fetus. Despite developing robust clinical protocols for effective immunoprophylaxis over the last 50+ years, a significant global burden of Rh disease still exists, particularly in low/middle-income countries such as Mexico. This study examined disparities in the allocation of maternal and child health resources, as well as clinical knowledge regarding Rh disease, to gain insight into why Rh disease remains prevalent in Mexico. To this end, an 11-question survey was sent to members of the Federación Mexicana de Colegios de Obstetricia y Ginecología (FEMECOG) to evaluate their knowledge of the availability and implementation of anti-RhD immunoglobulin prophylaxis in their practices and institutions, and about managing Rh disease by monitoring fetal anemia risk and providing intrauterine treatment when necessary. Responses were separated by region, and chi-square two-by-two contingency tests were performed to evaluate regional and institutional differences. Significant variations in prevention and treatment were found within the Mexican healthcare system, particularly, with regard to providing anti-RhD immunoglobulin to prevent alloimmunization, which is critically important for preventing Rh disease. Specifically, Regions 5, 6, and 7 were most lacking in this regard. This study highlights differences in the Mexican healthcare system in preventing and treating Rh disease. Closing the gap in the availability of anti-RhD immunoglobulin should take priority in future efforts aimed at providing equitable care, because this will lead to the more preferable outcome of preventing Rh disease, rather than forcing patients to seek out more complex measures for treating Rh disease after it develops. These data can be used to create strategies to understand and eliminate these healthcare disparities.

Paternal influence on pregnancy: Setting the precedence

According to sociologist, Sylvia patriarchy is “a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress, and exploit women.” Derived from the Greek word patriarkhēs, patriarchy means “the rule of the father.” American sociologist Allan Johnson further mentions that patriarchy is a kind of society in which even though men and women participate, but is male-privileged, maledominated, male-identified, and male-centered. Apart from the sociologist’s point of view of society, it seems that developmental programs in biology also have a patriarchal trend. At least, that’s what is reported from several studies recently. Lopez-Tello et al., reported a paternal insulinlike growth factor 2 (Igf2)-related selective trafficking of maternal resources toward the fetus for its development. Metabolic demands for the fetus are enhanced during pregnancy. It is, therefore, observed that there is a relatively greater shunting of metabolic fuels toward the fetus to increase nutrient availability, more than it is perhaps allowed by the maternal system. The placenta assists in this shuttle by promoting insulin resistance, which leads to glucose intolerance in the mother. This glucose is now made available to the fetal compartments. The paternal Igf2 gene undergoes genomic imprinting, and only the copy inherited from the father is active. Paternally active Igf2 expressed in placental endocrine cells directs the maternal lipids and carbohydrates toward the fetus, an excellent example of paternal manipulation of maternal physiology and metabolic patriarchy. Further, studies have shown that fathers fed with a high-fat diet reduce the pregnancy success rate because of the reduction of their sperm motility. Excess intake of processed food, highsugar diets, or fructose has consequences on offspring’s cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. Males fed a low protein diet in mice results in glucose intolerance, metabolic and cardiovascular dysfunctions, and altered patterns of bone mineralization in pups. We, therefore, can conclude a robust paternal influence on pregnancy and fetal outcome. Pregnancy was once thought of as an exclusively maternal affair. Increasing research in this arena seems to have smashed that stereotype with paternal influence seems to play a significant role in shaping the birth process. It is high time that Sylvia patriarchal understanding is redefined with the paternal share of responsibility beyond just dominance and an authoritarian role.

Kinship, lineage resources (wealth flow transfers), and intimate partner violence among women in Ghana

Previous research has established relationships between lineage and intimate partner violence (IPV). The findings suggest matrilineal women experience less IPV than patrilineal women. However, the IPV outcomes of bilateral women are unknown because of the limited operationalization of lineage with ethnicity. In our study, we used self-reported and multidimensional measures of lineage to explore its relationship with IPV, focusing particularly on the mechanisms linking the two. We hypothesized that wielding resources would be negatively associated with IPV. Furthermore, matrilineal women's access to lineage resources would reduce their vulnerability to IPV relative to patrilineal women. To examine these hypotheses, we collected data from 1700 ever-married Ghanaian women residing in three ecological zones (coastal, middle, northern). Path analysis was used to explore resources as mechanisms linking lineage and IPV. Our findings indicated resources were patterned by lineage. Matrilineal women benefitted more from maternal family members than patrilineal women and vice versa. Consistent with the standard resource theory, women's access to resources protected against IPV, and the effects were stronger for matrilineal than patrilineal women. Irrespective of how lineage was measured, matrilineal women experienced lower levels of IPV than patrilineal women. The IPV outcomes for bilateral women were mixed. Part of matrilineal women's reduced IPV risk was explained through access to maternal resources. While patrilineal women experienced higher levels of IPV, this was reversed with resources from paternal kin members. Our findings suggest that as resources are fundamental to reducing IPV, lineage can serve as a conduit for resource exchange and wealth transfer.

Cesarean Section: Medical, Social and Moral and Ethical Factors

Introduction: a cesarean section (C-section) is a surgical procedure used to deliver a baby through incisions in the abdomen and uterus. It is a common procedure, but it carries various medical, social, moral, and ethical considerations.Objective: to evaluate medical, social, moral, and ethical factors related to cesarean sections.Method: conducted a descriptive cross-sectional study on 100 pregnant women undergoing cesarean sections using nonrandom purposive sampling. Data (quantitative and qualitative) collected through a pretested questionnaire, analyzed with SPSS 26 and Atlas.ti.Results: significant associations were found in age (p=0,033), education (p=0,043), socioeconomic status (p=0,046), and BMI (p=0,048). Obstetric factors, including parity (p=0,033), delivery place (p=0,035), child weight at birth (p=0,000), and major indications for CS (p=0,048), demonstrated substantial impact. Ethical considerations showed significant associations with maternal autonomy (P=0,040), medical necessity (P=0,038), resource allocation (P=0,038), bonding impact (P=0,037), unnecessary interventions (P=0,033), reproductive autonomy (P=0,046), cultural sensitivity (P=0,028), and provider accountability (P=0,042).Conclusions: study emphasizes tailored maternal care, reveals sociodemographic, obstetric influences, intricate ethical dimensions

Trophoblastic signals facilitate endometrial interferon response and lipid metabolism, ensuring normal decidualization

The decidua plays a crucial role in providing structural and trophic support to the developing conceptus before placentation. Following embryo attachment, embryonic components intimately interact with the decidual tissue. While evidence indicates the participation of embryo-derived factors in crosstalk with the uterus, the extent of their impact on post-implantation decidual development requires further investigation. Here, we utilize transgenic mouse models to selectively eliminate primary trophoblast giant cells (pTGCs), the embryonic cells that interface with maternal tissue at the forefront. pTGC ablation impairs decidualization and compromises decidual interferon response and lipid metabolism. Mechanistically, pTGCs release factors such as interferon kappa (IFNK) to strengthen the decidual interferon response and lipoprotein lipase (LPL) to enhance lipid accumulation within the decidua, thereby promoting decidualization. This study presents genetic and metabolomic evidence reinforcing the proactive role of pTGC-derived factors in mobilizing maternal resources to strengthen decidualization, facilitating the normal progression of early pregnancy.

Maternal investment and early thermal conditions affect performance and antipredator responses.

Exposure to increased temperatures during early development can lead to phenotypic plasticity in morphology, physiology, and behavior across a range of ectothermic animals. In addition, maternal effects are known to be important contributors to phenotypic variation in offspring. Whether the 2 factors interact to shape offspring morphology and behavior is rarely explored. This is critical because climate change is expected to impact both incubation temperature and maternal stress and resource allocation. Using a fully factorial design, and Bayesian multivariate mixed models, we explored how the manipulation of early thermal environment and yolk-quantity in eggs affected the morphology, performance, and antipredator behavior of 2 sympatric Australian skink species (Lampropholis delicata and L. guichenoti). We found that juveniles from the hot treatment were larger than those on the cold treatment in L. guichenoti but not L. delicata. Using repeated behavioral measures for individual lizards, we found an interaction between incubation temperature and maternal investment in performance, with running speed being affected in a species-specific way by the treatment. We predicted that changes in performance should influence antipredator responses. In support of this prediction, we found that maternal investment impacted antipredator behavior, with animals from the yolk-reduced and cold treatment resuming activity faster after a simulated predatory attack in L. delicata. However, the prediction was not supported in L. guichenoti. Our results highlight the importance of exploring the multifaceted role that environments play across generations to understand how different anthropogenic factors will impact wildlife in the future.

Perceptions, practices, and associated factors towards expressed breastfeeding among mothers in Jakarta, Indonesia

Background Expression of breast milk is a strategy to ensures continuous breastfeeding during temporary separation of infant from the mother. Handling and storage of expressed breast milk (EBM) should be based on established recommendations because these practices can affect milk quality and safety. Objective To describe perceptions and practices of EBM handling and storage, compare with commonly used recommendations and associated factors influencing these practices among mothers in Jakarta, Indonesia, Methods Mothers who practiced expressed breastfeeding (EBF) to their 6-12 weeks-old infants completed questionnaires about their peceptions and practices on how they handle and storage EBM. The differences in perceptions and practices about expressed breastfeeding management were analyzed using the Chi-square or Fisher's exact test. Results Among 30 mothers, 14/30 gave EBF exclusively, 19/30 used breast pump, and 26/30 expressed ³6 times/day. Infants in this study received expressed milk 5-10 times per day. Maternal age and resource of information were factors significantly associated with mother’s perceptions, while maternal age, education, and parity were significantly associated with the practices of EBM handling and storage. Conclusion This study reveals inconsistent perceptions and practices on expressed milk handling and storage by the mothers. They have good knowledge about the theoretical aspects of expressed breastfeeding, but some other techniques are poor, which can be detrimental to the health of the infants. Further study is needed to find more efficient and optimal methods of expressed milk handling and storage, necessitating thoughtful consideration of better practices and recommendations.

Pheromone-based communication influences the production of somatic extracellular vesicles in C. elegans

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are integral to numerous biological processes, yet it is unclear how environmental factors or interactions among individuals within a population affect EV-regulated systems. In Caenorhabditis elegans, the evolutionarily conserved large EVs, known as exophers, are part of a maternal somatic tissue resource management system. Consequently, the offspring of individuals exhibiting active exopher biogenesis (exophergenesis) develop faster. Our research focuses on unraveling the complex inter-tissue and social dynamics that govern exophergenesis. We found that ascr#10, the primary male pheromone, enhances exopher production in hermaphrodites, mediated by the G-protein-coupled receptor STR-173 in ASK sensory neurons. In contrast, pheromone produced by other hermaphrodites, ascr#3, diminishes exophergenesis within the population. This process is regulated via the neuropeptides FLP-8 and FLP-21, which originate from the URX and AQR/PQR/URX neurons, respectively. Our results reveal a regulatory network that controls the production of somatic EV by the nervous system in response to social signals.

“If I got it, she got it”: Black mothers' food provision and symbiotic mothering

AbstractObjectiveThis study advances contemporary theories of motherhood, mothering, and foodwork within the context of poverty by focusing on the ways that low‐income Black mothers engage interdependent culturally distinct mothering strategies in light of a porous social safety net.BackgroundContemporary standards for good parenting are increasingly resource‐based.As such, the intricate and tactical ways that low‐income Black mothers manage to make food ends meet with little means and few resources are often obscured in favor of hegemonic forms of mothering.MethodThis study draws on 44 in‐depth interviews with low‐income Black mothers and grandmothers to examine their survival strategies, focusing on food provision.ResultsFindings reveal that these mothers prioritize basic needs provision, such as food and feeding, and achieve this often difficult goal by engaging a cultural toolkit that we term symbiotic mothering. Symbiotic mothering is constructed and reinforced through the collective processes of maternal exchange, mutual aid and resource pooling, and the intergenerational and horizontal transmission of cultural knowledges, values, and practices.ConclusionsWhile there is a wealth of scholarship interrogating the ways Black women deviate from dominant mothering expectations, symbiotic mothering highlights the unique cultural skillsets these mothers actively engage to meet the everyday demands of mothering, particularly related to food provision.

Virtual Obstetric Hospitalist Support for Obstetric Emergencies and Deliveries: The Mayo Clinic Experience.

Objective: To implement use of obstetric (OB) hospitalist telemedicine services (TeleOB) to support clinicians facing OB emergencies in low-resource hospital settings. Methods: TeleOB was staffed by OB hospitalists working at a tertiary maternity center. The service was available via real-time high-definition audio/video technology for providers at 17 outlying hospitals across a health system spanning two states. The initial 25 service activations are described. Results: TeleOB supported 17 deliveries, two postpartum emergency department (ED) consultations, and four antenatal ED consultations. In 10 of 17 (59%) deliveries, teleneonatology was jointly activated to support neonatal resuscitation. Sixteen (94%) deliveries occurred in multiparas, and five (29%) resulted from spontaneous preterm labor. Eighty percent (20/25) of activations occurred in facilities without maternity services. Conclusions: A TeleOB service staffed by OB hospitalists successfully supports hospitals in an integrated health care system. TeleOB is feasible for support of hospitals with no delivery facilities or with limited maternity care resources.

The influence of incubation temperature on offspring traits varies across northern and southern populations of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis).

Maternal provisioning and the developmental environment are fundamental determinants of offspring traits, particularly in oviparous species. However, the extent to which embryonic responses to these factors differ across populations to drive phenotypic variation is not well understood. Here, we examine the contributions of maternal provisioning and incubation temperature to hatchling morphological and metabolic traits across four populations of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), encompassing a large portion of the species' latitudinal range. Our results show that whereas the influence of egg mass is generally consistent across populations, responses to incubation temperature show population-level variation in several traits, including mass, head length, head width, and residual yolk mass. Additionally, the influence of incubation temperature on developmental rate is greater at northern populations, while the allocation of maternal resources toward fat body mass is greater at southern populations. Overall, our results suggest that responses to incubation temperature, relative to maternal provisioning, are a larger source of interpopulation phenotypic variation and may contribute to the local adaptation of populations.

Trend and Equity in Maternal and Child Health Resource Allocation in China Since the New Health System Reform: A Nationwide Study from 2008 to 2020.

China has made considerable efforts to promote the development of maternal and child health (MCH) care since the new health system reform in 2009. This study aims to evaluate the trend and equity of MCH resources allocation in China from 2008 to 2020 and provide a reference for rational distribution of MCH resources. Data were collected from the China Health Statistics Yearbook and China Statistics Yearbook. The number of MCH hospitals, licensed (assistant) physicians, registered nurses and beds were selected for the measurement of the equity of MCH resources allocation. The Health Resource Agglomeration Degree and Theil index were used in evaluating MCH resource allocation equity and to compare differences among regions. From 2008 to 2020, the average annual growth rates for MCH hospitals, beds, licensed (assistant) physicians, and registered nurses were 0.72%, 6.95%, 5.04%, and 9.57%, respectively. However, regional disparities in the equity of MCH resource allocation have been identified. Although the western region has shown growth in MCH resource allocation by geography, the agglomeration degree of the four indicators remains less than 1, significantly lower than the average value of greater than 2 in the eastern region. Additionally, the equity of human resource allocation in the western region is lower than the equity in the allocation of institutions. In the densely populated eastern region, the equity of MCH resource allocation by population is decreasing, with the agglomeration degree of all four indicators below 1 in 2020. The disparity in healthcare resource allocation within regions is the main cause of inequitable MCH resource allocation in China. The allocation of MCH resources in China has improved since 2009, however, geographic equity needs further improvement, particularly in densely populated regions. Population and geographic balances should be considered in the development and implementation of MCH resource allocation policies, and improving intraregional equity should be the focus.

You have to do some dhora-dhori’: achieving medical maternal health expectations through trust as social practice in Bangladesh

In contrast to prevailing conceptualisations of ‘trust’ as an object in popular and political discourses, this article takes the concept of trust as future-oriented practice as a launching pad for understanding relationships between people and medical systems in Bangladesh. Based on ethnographic fieldwork in Bangladeshi peri-urban and rural spaces, it focuses on expectations related to advanced maternal biomedical technologies delivered through medical institutions. These technologies have recently come to dominate practices and expectations around pregnancy and childbirth care and women’s navigations of health systems to realise these expectations. Within this context, trust in institutions in the public or private health sectors remains peripheral to women’s experiences of accessing desired maternal health resources. Rather, women leverage social connectedness through the patronage-related practice of dhora-dhori, translated as mutual grasping or holding. Dhora-dhori is based on social rootedness, trust in that rootedness, and reciprocity. Women act as embedded agents within their families to appeal to various social connections through dhora-dhori to tactically access desired services and resources, with the expectation that this will result in better care at a lower cost, whether in public or private health sectors. It is through such practice that women and families work to realise their expectations of care through institutions, collapsing distinctions between ‘trust’ in personal relationships and ‘trust’ in institutions, as it is through intimate relationships that relationships with medical institutions are engaged.

Perinatal health in Spain during and after the Great Recession: Educational selection into fertility as a protective factor in high unemployment contexts

Higher maternal resources have long been associated with superior birth outcomes. This study analyzes the potentially protective role of maternal educational selection into fertility in adverse macroeconomic contexts. We focus on the case of Spain, a country reaching record-high unemployment levels during the Great Recession starting in 2008. First, we examine whether selection into fertility of more educated mothers took place as province-level unemployment rates rose. Secondly, we assess whether maternal education mitigated the impact of higher unemployment levels on different birth outcomes. The analysis combines register data on the universe of live births with aggregate data on province-level unemployment. We cover the period 2007–2019 to ensure sufficient variability of unemployment rates and perform linear regression and linear probability models with fixed effects to hold constant unobserved heterogeneity across provinces. Findings indicate selection into fertility of mothers with university-level education in times of high unemployment. In addition, while unemployment rates did show an adverse impact on certain birth outcomes –birthweight, the occurrence of low and very low birthweight, and the risk of stillbirth – maternal education mitigated the observed relations. It was itself, moreover, consistently and independently associated with better perinatal health. We thus conclude that fertility selectivity by maternal education cushioned the impact of the adverse economic context derived from the Great Recession through two separate pathways.

Maternal immune activation and early postnatal resource deprivation stress induce sex-biased behavioral and proteomic alterations in mice

Maternal immune activation and early postnatal resource deprivation stress induce sex-biased behavioral and proteomic alterations in mice

Utilisation of Maternal Health Services and its Impact on Maternal Mortality Rate: A Case for KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Despite several strategies in place in South Africa and globally to prevent maternal mortality and morbidity, maternal deaths remain high, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and lower to middle-income countries. The aim of the study was to identify the challenges that lead to pregnant women’s delays in seeking antenatal care (ANC) early and to find strategies to prevent such delays, contributing to a reduction of maternal deaths in South Africa. The study was conducted in two phases. Phase one analysed data on maternal deaths collected by the District Health Information System (DHIS) of the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Health from all 11 districts over a 10-year period (2009–2019). The data on maternal deaths revealed that there was a very high maternal mortality rate; between 800 and 1 780 per 100 000 live births. This correlated with very low antenatal visits; between 695–895 per 100 000 live births. In phase two, a literature review was conducted using several computer-assisted databases, bibliographies and websites to identify and source current policies. The literature review presents causes of delay in seeking ANC and strategies to prevent maternal deaths. Recommendations were made to consider strengthening education and awareness related to family planning; women empowerment through community health programmes and change in healthcare providers’ behaviours and attitudes; ensuring availability of maternal health resources; and developing strategies to ensure that the ANC services delivered are in line with the South African Department of Health Guidelines.

Fetal manipulation of maternal metabolism is a critical function of the imprinted Igf2 gene

Maternal-offspring interactions in mammals involve both cooperation and conflict. The fetus has evolved ways to manipulate maternal physiology to enhance placental nutrient transfer, but the mechanisms involved remain unclear. The imprinted Igf2 gene is highly expressed in murine placental endocrine cells. Here, we show that Igf2 deletion in these cells impairs placental endocrine signaling to the mother, without affecting placental morphology. Igf2 controls placental hormone production, including prolactins, and is crucial to establish pregnancy-related insulin resistance and to partition nutrients to the fetus. Consequently, fetuses lacking placental endocrine Igf2 are growth restricted and hypoglycemic. Mechanistically, Igf2 controls protein synthesis and cellular energy homeostasis, actions dependent on the placental endocrine cell type. Igf2 loss also has additional long-lasting effects on offspring metabolism in adulthood. Our study provides compelling evidence for an intrinsic fetal manipulation system operating in placenta that modifies maternal metabolism and fetal resource allocation, with long-term consequences for offspring metabolic health.

The C. elegans gene gvd-1 promotes late larval development and germ cell proliferation.

Limiting maternal resources necessitate deferring the development of adult-specific structures, notably the reproductive structures, to the postembryonic phase. These structures form postembryonically from blast cells generated during embryogenesis. A close coordination of developmental timing and pattern among the various postembryonic cell lineages is essential to form a functional adult. Here, we show that the C. elegans gene gvd-1 is essential for the development of several structures that form during the late larval stages. In gvd-1 mutant animals, blast cells that normally divide during the late larval stages (L3 and L4) fail to divide. In addition, germ cell proliferation is also severely reduced in these animals. Expression patterns of relevant reporter transgenes revealed a delay in G1/S transition in the vulval precursor cell P6.p and cytokinesis failure in seam cells in gvd-1 larvae. Our analyses of GVD-1::GFP transgenes indicate that GVD-1 is expressed in both soma and germ line, and functions in both. Sequence comparisons revealed that the sequence of gvd-1 is conserved only among nematodes, which does not support a broadly conserved housekeeping function for gvd-1. Instead, our results indicate a crucial role for gvd-1 that is specific to the larval development of nematodes.

Epitranscriptome marks detection and localization of RNA modifying proteins in mammalian ovarian follicles

BackgroundMost of the resources that support the early development of the embryo are stored in the oocyte. Clearing of maternal resources and activation of the embryonic genome to produce its own mRNA transcripts marks the maternal-to-embryo transition. Dependence on stored mRNA can last from a few hours to several days, depending on animal species. The mechanisms regulating stabilization and recruitment of stored maternal transcripts have not yet been described in full detail but are known to involve reversible polyadenylation and modulation of 3’UTR-mediated elements. RNA epigenetic modifications, new players in this field, have an important role in RNA regulation and stabilization.ResultsThe objectives of this study were first to determine if some of post-transcriptional methylation of stored mRNA is greater in oocytes than in somatic cells. We found that m6A, known to be the most prevalent and involved in various aspects of RNA metabolism and physiological functions, is particularly abundant in porcine oocyte mRNA compared to liver used as a somatic tissue reference. The second objective was to compare the epitranscriptome machinery, such as methyltransferases (“writers”), binding proteins (“readers”) and demethylases (“erasers”) catalyzing the different process, in follicles and oocytes of different mammalian species by immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. The expression and localization patterns of these proteins differ between mice, pigs and cows ovaries and oocytes. m5C-associated proteins were generally less abundant. In contrast, m6A-associated proteins were expressed strongly during the early and late stages of folliculogenesis. Transzonal projections were found to contain more granules bearing the m5C mark in mice but both m5C and m6A methylation marks in association with mature oocytes of pigs and cows. Eraser proteins showed the greatest interspecies diversity in terms of distribution in the germinal tissues.ConclusionsSo far, few studies have looked at the oocyte and ovarian epitranscriptomic profile. Our findings indicate that a hitherto unrecognized species-specific layer of transcript regulation occurs at the RNA level and might be consequential during the oocyte transcriptional silencing period.

Child Temperament and Child-care Support are Related to Better Mother-child Relationship Quality

The current study identifies associates of mother-first-born-child relationship quality of an important period that is when expecting a second child. Based on Belsky’s determinants of parenting model (Belsky, 1984), we suggested three domains to relate to mother-child relationship quality, maternal personal resources (well-being, effortful control), child characteristics (temperament, behaviour problems) and contextual factors (household chaos, child-care support, marital satisfaction). Forty-five mothers (Mage= 34.78 years; SDage = 3.86 years) and their typically developing first-born children (Mchild age=32.26 months; SDage = 6.27) were visited at home in the south of England, Sussex, UK, where mothers completed questionnaires and mother-child interactions were videotaped. Results demonstrated that easier child temperament, better maternal well-being, less household chaos and more child-care support were related to more positive mother-child relationship quality. Together the variables explained 23% of the variance in relationship quality. The child’s easy temperament, chaos and child-care support provided unique variance in explaining the mother-child relationship. These results contribute to the literature on expecting a second child and yield several implications. The findings also provide guidance for future intervention programs. In order to improve the mother-child relationship quality, child executive functioning may be a fruitful target for intervention, as well as increased support for child-care and decreased household chaos.