Maternal Physical Activity Research Articles

The Need to Objectively Measure Physical Activity During Pregnancy: Considerations for Clinical Research and Public Health Impact.

Engaging in recommended levels of physical activity during pregnancy can provide a host of physical and mental health benefits for the expecting mother and her child. However, methodological issues related to physical activity measurement have plagued many studies examining the effects of physical activity during this important life stage. Burgeoning support exists for the more widespread use of objective methods, and accelerometers specifically, for an accurate appraisal of maternal physical activity. In this commentary, we highlight discrepancies between activity estimates obtained via self-report and objective measures and describe the implications of erroneous measurement when making clinical recommendations and in conducting future physical activity and pregnancy research. Most importantly, we aim to foster academic discussion and propose a call to action requiring a paradigm shift where we acknowledge the shortcomings of self-report and move toward an empirically driven approach for physical activity measurement. Results from more high-quality research studies will help support public health messaging and facilitate trust among health care providers, clinical researchers, and expecting mothers regarding the health benefits of physical activity recommendations.

Maternal Physical Activity Is Associated With Improved Blood Pressure Regulation During Late Pregnancy

BackgroundCardiovagal baroreflex gain (cBRG) reflects an individual's ability to buffer swings in blood pressure. It is not well understood how this mechanism is influenced by physical activity in pregnancy. Because pregnant women tend to engage in low levels of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and high levels of sedentary behaviour, we sought to determine the influence of MVPA and sedentary behaviour on cBRG and mean arterial pressure (MAP) in pregnancy. MethodsFifty-eight third trimester (31.9 ± 3.0 weeks) normotensive pregnant women (31.2 ± 2.8 years) were tested. Heart rate (electrocardiogram) and blood pressure (systolic blood pressure and MAP; finger photoplethysmography) were collected on a beat-by-beat basis, and averaged over 3 minutes of rest. Spontaneous cBRG was calculated as the slope of the relationship between fluctuations in systolic blood pressure and heart rate. Objective measures of MVPA and sedentary behaviour were collected over a 7-day period using an ActiGraph accelerometer (model wGTX3-BT; ActiGraph LLC, Pensacola, FL). ResultsParticipants spent 67.5 ± 7.9% of waking hours engaged in sedentary behaviour, and performed 68.6 ± 91.9 minutes of MVPA per week. Sedentary behaviour was not related to cBRG (r = −0.035; P = 0.793) or MAP (r = −0.033; P = 0.803). However, MVPA was positively associated with cBRG (r = 0.315; P = 0.016), but not MAP (r = −0.115; P = 0.389). The association between MVPA and cBRG remained significant after controlling for age, pre-pregnancy body mass index, gestational age, and wear time (r = 0.338; P = 0.013), indicating that women who engaged in greater amounts of MVPA showed increased cBRG. ConclusionsOur data suggest that increased MVPA, but not necessarily reduced sedentary behaviour, might be beneficial for reflex control of blood pressure during pregnancy.

Differential methylation of insulin-like growth factor 2 in offspring of physically active pregnant women.

Several studies have suggested that maternal lifestyle during pregnancy may influence long-term health of offspring by altering the offspring epigenome. Whether maternal leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) during pregnancy might have this effect is unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between maternal LTPA during pregnancy and offspring DNA methylation. Participants were recruited from the Archive for Research on Child Health study. At enrollment, participants' demographic information and self-reported LTPA during pregnancy were determined. High active participants (averaged 637.5 min per week of LTPA; n=14) were matched by age and race to low active participants (averaged 59.5 min per week LTPA; n=28). Blood spots were obtained at birth. Pyrosequencing was used to determine methylation levels of long interspersed nucleotide elements (LINE-1) (global methylation) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARγ), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator (PGC1-α), insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2), pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase, isozyme 4 (PDK4) and transcription factor 7-like 2 (TCF7L2). We found no differences between offspring of high active and low active groups for LINE-1 methylation. The only differences in candidate gene methylation between groups were at two CpG sites in the P2 promoter of IGF2; the offspring of low active group had significantly higher DNA methylation (74.70±2.25% methylation for low active v. 72.83±2.85% methylation for high active; P=0.045). Our results suggest no effect of maternal LTPA on offspring global and candidate gene methylation, with the exception of IGF2. IGF2 has been previously associated with regulation of physical activity, suggesting a possible role of maternal LTPA on regulation of offspring physical activity.

Multilevel Analysis: Factors Associated with Overweight and Obesity in Primary School Children in Surakarta, Central Java

Background : Life course studies have shown that early onset obesity is a risk factor for morbidity and mortality later in life. In both sexes, rates of diabetes, coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, hip fracture, and gout were increased in those who were overweight as adolescents. Contextual factor at higher level such as school may have indirect effect on the incidence of overweight or obesity through eating behavior. However, studies into factors affecting child obesity in Indonesia using multilevel approach are lacking. This study aimed to examine factors associated with overweight and obesity in primary school children in Surakarta, Central Java, using multilevel analysis. Subjects and Method : A case control study was conducted at 25 primary schools in Surakarta, Central Java, from March to April 2018. A sample of 225 primary school children was selected by fixed disease sampling, consisting of 75 children with overweight or obesity and 150 children with normal weight. The variables of children were placed at the first level of the multilevel model. The potential contextual effect of school was determined at the second level. The dependent variable was overweight or obesity. The independent variables were maternal education, maternal body mass index (BMI), physical activity, family income, and school environment. The data were collected by questionnaire and analyzed by a multilevel logistic regression run on Stata 13. Results : Child overweight or obesity was positively associated with maternal BMI ≥25 (b= 0.11; 95% CI= 0.04 to 0.18; p= 0.002) and high family income (b= 0.04; 95% CI= 0.02 to 0.06; p< 0.001). Child overweight or obesity was negatively associated with high physical activity (b= -0.03; 95% CI= -0.05 to -0.01; p= 0.009). School environment had a negligible contextual effect on child obesity with ICC= 5.08%. Conclusion : Child obesity is positively associated with maternal BMI ≥25 and family income, and is negatively associated with physical activity. School environment has a negligible contextual effect on child obesity. Keywords : obesity, primary school children, maternal body mass index, physical activity Correspondence: Arum Kusuma Rini. Masters Program in Public Health, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Jl. Ir. Sutami No. 36 A, Surakarta 57126, Central Java. Email: arumkusumarini@yahoo.com. Mobile: +6282133044191. Journal of Epidemiology and Public Health (2019), 4(1): 1-8 https://doi.org/10.26911/jepublichealth.2019.04.01.01

Trajectories of maternal leisure-time physical activity and sedentary behavior during adolescence to young adulthood and offspring birthweight

PurposeThe objectives of the study were to determine the extent to which trajectories of maternal preconception leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) and leisure-time sedentary behavior (LTSB) during adolescence and young adulthood are associated with offspring birth weight (BW) and to test if these associations differ by offspring sex or maternal pre-pregnancy overweight–obese status. MethodsParticipants with one or more birth (n = 1408) were identified from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. Group-based trajectory modeling was used to characterize trajectories of LTPA (frequency/week) and LTSB (hours/week) which were measured, on average, over 7 years between age 15 and 22 years. Weighted regression and Wald tests were used to estimate and test mean differences and odds ratios for BW, small for gestational age, and large for gestational age (LGA). ResultsThree trajectories were identified for LTPA and five for LTSB. Associations differed by offspring sex for continuous BW and LGA (interaction P = .10 and .008, respectively). Among female offspring, participants with high followed by decreasing LTPA delivered offspring with 90 g greater BW (95% confidence interval [CI]: −4 to 184) and 72% greater risk of LGA (95% CI: 0.94–3.14), compared with participants with low LTPA. Among male offspring, LTPA patterns were not associated with BW. A pattern of high then decreasing LTPA among normal weight, but not overweight–obese women, was associated with 2.03 times greater risk of LGA (95% CI: 1.06–3.88). LTSB trajectories were not associated with BW. ConclusionsAssociations of preconception trajectories of LTPA with offspring BW may differ by offspring sex and maternal pre-pregnancy overweight–obese status.

Cross-sectional associations between maternal parenting styles, physical activity and screen sedentary time in children

BackgroundChildren’s activity level, including physical activity (PA) and screen sedentary time (SST), is influenced by environmental factors in which parents play a critical role. Different types of parenting styles may influence children’s activity level. Inconsistent results were found on the association between parenting styles and PA, and few studies tested the association between parenting styles and SST. This study examined the association between parenting styles, PA and SST and the modifying effect of children’s gender and maternal educational level on these associations.MethodsCross-sectional data were collected from parents of children aged 8–11 years old who completed a web-based non-standardized questionnaire (N = 4047). Since 85% of the questionnaires were filled in by mothers, parenting styles are mainly reported by mothers. Multiple linear regression techniques were used to assess the associations between parenting styles (authoritative, permissive, authoritarian and neglectful), and PA and SST (mean min/day). The modifying effect of children’s gender and maternal educational level on these associations was explored. P values ≤.0125 were considered as statistically significant based on the Bonferroni correction for four primary analyses.ResultsThe neglectful parenting style was most widely used (35.3%), while the authoritarian style was least common (14.8%). No significant association was found between parenting styles and PA level. As regards SST, an authoritative parenting style was significantly associated with lower SST in boys while a neglectful parenting style was significantly associated with higher SST in both boys and girls. When the mother had a medium educational level, an authoritative parenting style was significantly associated with lower SST while neglectful parenting was significantly associated with higher SST.ConclusionsNo association was found between parenting styles and PA. However, an authoritative parenting style was associated with a reduction in SST and a neglectful parenting style with an increase in SST, especially in boys and in children whose mother had a medium education level. Future studies of parenting practices are needed to gain more insight into the role of parents in children’s PA and SST levels, as a basis for the development of interventions tailored to support parents in stimulating PA and reducing SST in children.

Maternal voluntary physical activity attenuates delayed neurodevelopment in malnourished rats.

What is the central question of this study? In the present study, a reproducible model of maternal voluntary physical activity was developed to evaluate the adaptive response of physical activity by attenuating the effects of maternal undernutrition on physical features, reflex ontogeny and growth trajectory of offspring during development. What is the main finding and its importance? Maternal physical activity may induce neuronal maturation of sensorimotor connections impacting on the patterns of locomotor activity in malnourished offspring. Thus, physical activity should be considered as a therapeutic means of countering the effects of maternal undernutrition, by providing a useful strategy for enhancing the neuronal activity of children born to mothers who experience a restricted diet during pregnancy. This study evaluated the effects of maternal voluntary physical activity during pregnancy and lactation on somatic growth (SG), reflex ontogeny (RO) and locomotor activity (LA) of rats whose mothers were protein restricted. Virgin female Wistar rats were divided into the following six groups: control, normal protein (C-NP, n=4); control, low protein (C-LP, n=4); inactive, normal protein (I-NP, n=8); inactive, low protein (I-LP, n=7); very active, normal protein (VA-NP, n=8); and very active, low protein (VA-LP, n=6). Voluntary physical activity was recorded daily in dams. The LP groups were fed an 8% casein diet, whereas control groups were fed a 17% casein diet during pregnancy and lactation. Offspring were evaluated in terms of SG (body weight and length, latero-lateral skull axis and anteroposterior head axis) and RO (palmar grasp, righting, free-fall righting, negative geotaxis, cliff avoidance, auditory startle response and vibrissa placing). The LA was evaluated at 23, 45 and 60days old in the open field. Voluntary physical activity was reduced during pregnancy and lactation independent of the maternal diet. Pups from LP dams showed delayed SG, reflex maturation and patterns of LA when compared with control pups. The C-LP and I-LP pups showed a delayed SG, RO and LA. Pups from VA-LP mothers showed no delay in SG and RO and presented a faster development of patterns of LA. Maternal voluntary physical activity attenuated the effects of LP diet on indicators of neurodevelopment and patterns of LA of offspring.

Acculturation Influences Postpartum Eating, Activity, and Weight Retention in Low-Income Hispanic Women.

Low-income Hispanic women experience elevated rates of high postpartum weight retention (PPWR), which is an independent risk factor for lifetime obesity. Sociocultural factors might play an important role among Hispanic women; however, very few studies have examined this association. The purpose of our study was to examine the associations between acculturation and maternal diet, physical activity, and PPWR. This is a cross-sectional study of baseline data from 282 Hispanic women participating in the FitMoms/Mamás Activas study, a randomized controlled trial examining the impact of primarily an internet-based weight control program, in reducing PPWR among low-income women. We performed multivariable linear regression to examine the association of acculturation with diet quality, physical activity, and PPWR at study entry. A total of 213 (76%) women had acculturation scores reflecting Mexican orientation or bicultural orientation, whereas 69 (24%) had scores that represented assimilation to Anglo culture. Women who were more acculturated had lower intakes of fruits and vegetables, lower HEI scores, and lower physical activity levels than women who were less acculturated (p < 0.05). We found an association between acculturation and PPWR in that for every 1-unit increase in acculturation score, PPWR increased, on average, by 0.80 kg. Higher acculturation was associated with poorer diet and physical activity behaviors and greater PPWR.

Effect of maternal exercise on calf dry matter intake, weight gain, behavior, and cortisol concentrations at disbudding and weaning

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of maternal physical activity during late gestation on calf dry matter intake, weight gain, behavior, and cortisol concentration during disbudding and weaning. Fifty-five Holstein and 5 Jersey × Holstein crossbred calves were enrolled into the study during gestation. Calves were born from pregnant, nonlactating Holstein (n = 58) and Jersey × Holstein crossbred (n = 2) dairy cows. Cows were assigned to either confinement (n = 20 cows; 13 female calves, 7 male calves), exercise (n = 20 cows; 8 female calves, 12 male calves), or pasture (n = 20 cows; 11 female calves, 9 male calves) treatments at dry-off from January to November 2015. Enrollment in treatment was balanced by parity (1.8 ± 0.9), projected mature-equivalent fat-corrected milk (13,831 ± 2,028 kg/lactation), dam breed, and projected calving date. Cows assigned to confinement remained in the pen throughout the dry period. Cows assigned to exercise were walked 5 times/wk at a targeted 1.5 h at 3.25 km/h. Cows assigned to pasture were turned out 5 times/wk for a targeted 1.5 h/d. Treatments were terminated on the expected due date or at signs of calving. Calves were removed from cows immediately once observed by farm staff and subsequently weighed and moved into a straw deep-bedded hutch. Data loggers were attached to the rear fetlock of each calf -3 d to +6 d relative to disbudding and weaning to monitor changes in lying behavior. Calves were weighed on d -7, -5, -3, -1, 0, 1, 3, 5, and 7, and grain was weighed the 7 d preceding and following disbudding and weaning. Blood was collected 24 h before and 0, 1, and 4 h after disbudding and d -1, 0, 1, and 2 relative to weaning to determine cortisol concentrations. Data were analyzed using mixed linear model in SAS (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Calf weight gain decreased the day after disbudding and calves tended to have elevated cortisol concentrations 1 h after disbudding, regardless of maternal treatment. Calf weight gain decreased the day of and after weaning; calves had elevated cortisol concentrations the day after weaning, regardless of treatment. Behavior did not differ by treatment at disbudding, but calves from pasture cows lay down for less time compared with confinement and exercise maternal treatments and less frequently than exercise maternal treatments at weaning. More research investigating the significance of lying time and restlessness around stressful events is needed to further understand the implications of such behavioral responses.

Health 4 Life. Improving Maternal Physical Activity and Nutrition.

The International Journal of Integrated Care (IJIC) is an online, open-access, peer-reviewed scientific journal that publishes original articles in the field of integrated care on a continuous basis.IJIC has an Impact Factor of 2.913 (2021 JCR, received in June 2022)The IJIC 20th Anniversary Issue was published in 2021.

Physical activity during pregnancy and infant’s birth weight: results from the 3D Birth Cohort

AimTo evaluate the association between maternal physical activity and infant’s birth weight or risk of inappropriate weight for gestational age (GA), and whether this association differs by infant’s sex, maternal...

Maternal-child co-participation in physical activity-related behaviours: prevalence and cross-sectional associations with mothers and children\u2019s objectively assessed physical activity levels

BackgroundCo-participation in physical activity may be a useful strategy for increasing physical activity in mothers and their young children, yet little empirical evidence exists on this topic for young families. This study aimed to identify the prevalence of mother-child co-participation in physical activity and examine the association between co-participatory behaviours and objectively-assessed physical activity in young children and their mothers.MethodsOne-hundred twenty-three 4–6 year-old children and their mothers were recruited from preschools in Belgium between November 2010 and January 2011. Mothers completed a questionnaire assessing the frequency of co-participation in five activities. Both mothers and children wore ActiGraph GT1M accelerometers concurrently for 7 days to assess the time spent in moderate-to vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA) and light- to vigorous-intensity physical activity (LMVPA). Descriptive statistics (means, frequencies) were used to determine the prevalence of co-participation. Separate multiple linear regression analyses examined the association between co-participation and mothers’ and children’s physical activity on weekdays and weekends.ResultsMost mothers reported infrequent co-participation in physical activities with their children. On weekdays, walking or cycling for short trips was positively associated with children’s MVPA while attending a park or similar more than once per week was negatively associated with children’s MVPA and LMVPA. Going to an indoor play centre together once or more per week was negatively associated with mother’s LMVPA. On weekends, walking or cycling with their child in their free time was positively associated with both children’s and mothers’ MVPA and childrens’ LMVPA. Going to an indoor play centre together 1–3 times/month was negatively associated with children’s weekend MVPA.ConclusionsReported rates of co-participation in mothers and their preschool children were low. The association with maternal and child physical activity may be dependent on the co-participatory behaviour assessed and may differ between weekday and weekends. Promoting walking and cycling together during leisure time may be an effective strategy to increase both preschool children’s and mothers’ MVPA.

Maternal occupational physical activity and risk for orofacial clefts.

To perform a case-control study of maternal occupational physical activity and risk for orofacial clefts in Texas during 1999-2009. We used logistic regression to assess 14 measures of physical activity estimated from a job exposure matrix, using the maternal occupation reported on the birth certificate, among 887 children with cleft lip with or without cleft palate (CLP), 436 children with cleft palate only (CP), and 1932 controls. After adjusting for several potential confounders, seven measures of physical activity (as a categorical and/or continuous variable) were significantly associated with CLP, CP, or both. Positive associations were seen for keeping balance, kneeling, standing, and walking/running (odds ratio 95% confidence interval range 1.0-1.9 for fourth versus first quartile). A significant positive trend was also seen for bending/twisting. Negative associations were seen for repetitive motion and sitting. Maternal occupational physical activity may be related to the etiology of orofacial clefts.

Enhancing Periconceptional Health by Targeting Postpartum Mothers at Rural WIC Clinics

The overall goal of this pilot quality improvement (QI) intervention was to (1) assess the feasibility of making a WIC (Women, Infants, and Children) systems-level change that added measurement of maternal weight and discussion of maternal health habits into each postpartum maternal and offspring visit in rural clinics in Colorado and (2) assess the impacts of the intervention on maternal diet, physical activity, and weight status. A mixed-method evaluation approach was used involving the collection of quantitative data (HeartSmartMoms usage reports, manual WIC chart reviews [to calculate screening rates], pre-/postsurveys, and weight status [body mass index]) and qualitative data (focus groups and project team meeting minutes). It was determined it is feasible to make a short-term systems-level change; however, many barriers were encountered in doing so, and the results were not sustained. The QI intervention did decrease participants' daily consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and maternal weight status (controlling for maternal age and language), but did not improve any other eating/physical activity behaviors. Lessons learned and recommendations to improve the implementation of health promotion interventions aimed at improving postpartum maternal health, which can increase health during the periconceptional phase, and in turn, improve the health outcomes for a child, are discussed.

MATERNAL ACTIVITY DURING PREGNANCY AND SEXUALLY DIMORPHIC TRAITS IN OFFSPRING.

Studies have found positive correlations between prenatal exposure to testosterone and masculinization of offspring traits, particularly among females. The present study sought to determine if physical or sexual activity by the mother during pregnancy was related to masculinized/defeminized offspring traits in adulthood. Data were obtained from a large sample of North American college students (offspring) and their mothers. Information about maternal activity levels during pregnancy were reported retrospectively by each mother. The offspring provided self-ratings of various sexually dimorphic traits. Several significant correlations were found. By and large, as maternal physical activity increased, feminine mannerisms decreased and masculine mannerisms increased in the offspring, particularly for females. Maternal physical activity was also associated with increased upper- and lower-body strength and especially with adult height among offspring. Sexual activity by the mother was only associated with upper-body strength and adult height, particularly of the female offspring. Several sexually dimorphic physical traits in offspring are associated with maternal activity levels during pregnancy. Prenatal testosterone is almost certainly involved. The associations could either reflect genetic influences (given that prenatal testosterone is highly heritable) or an effect of maternal testosterone being transferred to the developing fetus. More research is needed to assess the relative merit of these two possibilities.

Seasonal Differences in Birth Weights and Lengths Depends on Exposure During Pregnancy in Rural India

BackgroundBirth weight and birth length are important indicators of morbidity, mortality and future growth and development during childhood and adulthood. The seasonality of these indicators has been documented in various developing countries, but there is a dearth of data from rural South Asia. Seasonal variations in anthropometry are generally attributed to seasonal deteriorations in maternal health and nutritional status that occur during pregnancy when food supplies are diminished, and both agricultural labor demands and risk for infectious disease are high. Peak fetal growth velocity in length and weight occur during the 2nd and 3rd trimester of pregnancy, respectively, and are thus periods when fetal growth may be particularly vulnerable to seasonal insults.ObjectiveTo describe seasonal variation in birth weights and lengths that result from exposure to one of three seasons during the 2nd and 3rd trimesters of pregnancy, respectively, for length and weight.MethodsFrom August 2015–September 2016, all pregnant women in the 32nd week of gestation or later, residing in 9 rural villages in Uttar Pradesh (UP) were invited to participate in a study of infant growth. Pregnant women were identified from a pre‐existing registry that was based on a bi‐monthly village surveillance of missed menstrual cycle. The final working sample of singleton, full‐term newborn infants with valid anthropometry measured within 14 days of birth was 288 for weight and 254 for length. Seasons were defined as rainy (July–September), winter (October–February) and summer (March–June). Multi‐level models with village as a random effect were used to test the effect of exposure to season during the 3rd trimester for weight, and the 2nd trimester for length.ResultsThe mean (SD) birth weight of the sample was 2.64 (0.44) kg, and the mean (SD) birth length was 48.0 (1.6) cm. Mean birth weights for infants born in the rainy, winter and summer season were 2.66 (0.44) kg, 2.59 (0.45) kg and 2.75 (0.38) kg, respectively. Mean birth lengths for infants born in the rainy, winter and summer season were 48.2 (1.4) cm, 47.8 (1.6) cm and 48.1 (1.8) cm, respectively. After controlling for gestational age and sex, infants exposed to the rainy season during the 3rd trimester of pregnancy had mean birth weights that were 163 grams lower than infants exposed to summer (p=0.022). Infants exposed to the rainy season during the 2nd trimester of pregnancy had birth lengths that were 0.6 cm (p=0.068) and 0.5cm (p=0.062) lower than in winter and in summer, respectively.ConclusionsThese preliminary findings suggest that observed seasonal differences in newborn size vary according to season of exposure during periods of expected maximum fetal growth velocity in weight and length. Further analyses will seek to understand the seasonality of maternal health, nutrition security and physical activity that may explain seasonal patterns in birth weights and lengths.Support or Funding InformationAgriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4HN), Leveraging Agriculture for Nutrition in South Asia (LANSA)

The Omega‐6 to Omega‐3 Fatty Acid Ratio Predicts Brain Activity During Planning Tasks in Middle Childhood.

The Omega‐6 to Omega‐3 Fatty Acid Ratio Predicts Brain Activity During Planning Tasks in Middle Childhood.

L’activité physique devrait-elle être contre-indiquée pendant la grossesse au regard des risques qui lui sont potentiellement associés ?

ObjectiveThis paper aimed at providing a critical analysis of data on the risks associated with physical activity of women during their pregnancy. MethodsCochrane Library, Google Scholar, PubMed (Medline) and Web of Sciences were searched using a combination of MeSH terms associated to “Physical activity”, “Pregnancy” and “Adverse events” or “Risks”. Only review papers published from inception of these databases to November 2016 were used in the present analysis. ResultsThe electronic search yield a total of 104 citations. After a critical analysis of abstracts and/or full-texts, only a systematic review and cohort study on injuries related to physical activity during pregnancy appeared relevant for the current study. Data reveals a very small proportion (<1 %) of adverse events in direct link with the physical activity behavior of pregnant women. Furthermore, there would be less than one serious adverse event per 5000hours of physical activity. The only serious adverse event attributable to physical activity during pregnancy was uterine contractions. The threat of preterm labor and miscarriage risk cannot be primarily attributed to the participation of pregnant women in a physical activity, even vigorous. Moreover, no adverse effects of maternal physical activity on neonatal outcomes were found. ConclusionPhysical activity-related risks during pregnancy appear to be infrequent and of minor severity. Though further studies are required to better understand the risk/benefit balance of physical activity during pregnancy, current data do not support the contraindication of this behavior in pregnant women.

Low-intensity Physical Activity is Associated with Lower Maternal Systemic Inflammation during Late Pregnancy.

Excessive maternal inflammation during pregnancy increases the risk for maternal and neonatal metabolic complications. Fortunately, maternal physical activity during pregnancy appears to reduce maternal inflammation. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between maternal physical activity intensity and maternal inflammation during late pregnancy. Maternal physical activity levels (sedentary, light, lifestyle, and moderate), fitness levels, and systemic inflammation (plasma C-reactive protein (CRP) concentration) were measured between 32–37 weeks gestation. Relationships were examined by Spearman Rank Coefficient Correlation analyses. Maternal plasma CRP was negatively associated with time spent in light and lifestyle physical activities (Light: r=−0.40, p=0.01; Lifestyle: r=−0.31, p=0.03), but not with time spent in moderate physical activity (r=−0.18, p=0.21). Higher maternal plasma CRP tended to correlate with more time spent sedentary (r=0.27, p=0.06). In addition, increases in light and lifestyle activities may elicit a clinically meaningful change in inflammation. In conclusion, pregnant women should be encouraged to incorporate more low-intensity physical activities into their daily routines in order to decrease systemic inflammation and potentially improve maternal and neonatal pregnancy outcomes.

Maternal and early life nutrition and physical activity: setting the research and intervention agenda for addressing the double burden of malnutrition in South African children

ABSTRACT Early life is important for later health outcomes, yet there are few studies which adequately address all of the potential early life insults that may affect later life health and growth trajectories. This is particularly evident in low- to middle-income countries such as South Africa, where women of childbearing age are particularly vulnerable to high levels of physical inactivity, malnutrition, and obesity. Pregnancy may therefore be an opportune time to change behaviours and improve maternal and offspring health outcomes, and decrease the inter-generational transfer of risk. We show clear evidence that physical activity and nutrition are important target areas for intervention during pregnancy and in the early years of life, yet that current literature in Africa, and specifically South Africa, is limited. We have outlined the available literature concerning the impact of maternal and early life nutrition and physical activity on the health status of South African children, and have provided some recommendations for future research and policy.