Maternal Language Research Articles

Exposure to bilingual or monolingual maternal speech during pregnancy affects the neurophysiological encoding of speech sounds in neonates differently.

Exposure to maternal speech during the prenatal period shapes speech perception and linguistic preferences, allowing neonates to recognize stories heard frequently in utero and demonstrating an enhanced preference for their mother's voice and native language. Yet, with a high prevalence of bilingualism worldwide, it remains an open question whether monolingual or bilingual maternal speech during pregnancy influence differently the fetus' neural mechanisms underlying speech sound encoding. In the present study, the frequency-following response (FFR), an auditory evoked potential that reflects the complex spectrotemporal dynamics of speech sounds, was recorded to a two-vowel /oa/ stimulus in a sample of 129 healthy term neonates within 1 to 3 days after birth. Newborns were divided into two groups according to maternal language usage during the last trimester of gestation (monolingual; bilingual). Spectral amplitudes and spectral signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) at the stimulus fundamental (F0) and first formant (F1) frequencies of each vowel were, respectively, taken as measures of pitch and formant structure neural encoding. Our results reveal that while spectral amplitudes at F0 did not differ between groups, neonates from bilingual mothers exhibited a lower spectral SNR. Additionally, monolingually exposed neonates exhibited a higher spectral amplitude and SNR at F1 frequencies. We interpret our results under the consideration that bilingual maternal speech, as compared to monolingual, is characterized by a greater complexity in the speech sound signal, rendering newborns from bilingual mothers more sensitive to a wider range of speech frequencies without generating a particularly strong response at any of them. Our results contribute to an expanding body of research indicating the influence of prenatal experiences on language acquisition and underscore the necessity of including prenatal language exposure in developmental studies on language acquisition, a variable often overlooked yet capable of influencing research outcomes.

Association of Maternal Cervical Cancer Screening Adherence with Adolescent HPV Vaccination Among Adolescent-Mother Pairs.

Less than two-thirds of US adolescents are up-to-date with HPV vaccination. While mothers engaged in preventive care are more likely to seek preventive care for their children, current studies on associations between maternal cervical cancer screening (CCS) and adolescent HPV vaccination are needed. We assessed associations between maternal preventive service utilization and adolescent HPV vaccination using electronic health record data from a healthcare system in Washington State. We included adolescents (11-17 years) and their mothers with ≥ 1 primary care visit between 2018 and 2020. Outcomes were HPV vaccine initiation and completion. The primary exposure was maternal adherence to guideline-recommended CCS. Secondary exposures were maternal breast cancer screening adherence (for mothers ≥ 52 years) and ≥ 1 wellness visit ≤ 2 years. We used Generalized Estimating Equations to estimate prevalence ratios, and explore effect modification by adolescent sex, adolescent provider characteristics, and maternal language interpreter use. Of 4121 adolescents, 66% had a CCS-adherent mother, 82% initiated HPV vaccination, and 49% completed the series. CCS adherence was associated with higher initiation (adjusted prevalence ratio (APR):1.10, 95%CI:1.06-1.13) and completion (APR:1.16, 95%CI:1.08-1.23). Associations were stronger for male vs. female adolescents, adolescents who had a primary care provider in family practice vs. pediatrics, and adolescents who had the same primary care provider as their mother vs. not. Recent maternal wellness visit was also associated with higher initiation (APR:1.04, 95%CI:1.01-1.07) and completion (APR:1.12, 95%CI:1.05-1.20). Results suggest that delivering healthcare through a family-centered approach and engaging mothers in broad preventive care could increase adolescent HPV vaccination coverage.

Retraction Note: Cognitively stimulating maternal language as predictor for vocabulary growth

Retraction Note: Cognitively stimulating maternal language as predictor for vocabulary growth

Features of animal babbling in the vocal ontogeny of the gray mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus)

In human infants babbling is an important developmental stage of vocal plasticity to acquire maternal language. To investigate parallels in the vocal development of human infants and non-human mammals, seven key features of human babbling were defined, which are up to date only shown in bats and marmosets. This study will explore whether these features can also be found in gray mouse lemurs by investigating how infant vocal streams gradually resemble the structure of the adult trill call, which is not present at birth. Using unsupervised clustering, we distinguished six syllable types, whose sequential order gradually reflected the adult trill. A subset of adult syllable types was produced by several infants, with the syllable production being rhythmic, repetitive, and independent of the social context. The temporal structure of the calling bouts and the tempo-spectral features of syllable types became adult-like at the age of weaning. The age-dependent changes in the acoustic parameters differed between syllable types, suggesting that they cannot solely be explained by physical maturation of the vocal apparatus. Since gray mouse lemurs exhibit five features of animal babbling, they show parallels to the vocal development of human infants, bats, and marmosets.

Assessing child development scores among minority and Indigenous language versus dominant language speakers: a cross-sectional analysis of national Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys

Multiple studies have highlighted the inequities minority and Indigenous children face when accessing health care. Health and wellbeing are positively impacted when Indigenous children are educated and receive care in their maternal language. However, less is known about the association between minority or Indigenous language use and child development risks and outcomes. In this study, we provide global estimates of development risks and assess the associations between minority or Indigenous language status and early child development using the ten-item Early Child Development Index (ECDI), a tool widely used for global population assessments in children aged 3-4 years. We did a secondary analysis of cross-sectional data from 65 UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) containing the ECDI from 2009-19 (waves 4-6). We included individual-level data for children aged 2-4 years (23-60 months) from datasets with ECDI modules, for surveys that captured the language of the respondent, interview, or head of household. The Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale was used to classify household languages as dominant versus minority or Indigenous at the country level. Our primary outcome was on-track overall development, defined per UNICEF's guidelines as development being on track for at least three of the four ECDI domains (literacy-numeracy, learning, physical, and socioemotional). We performed logistic regression of pooled, weighted ECDI scores, aggregated by language status and adjusting for the covariables of child sex, child nutritional status (stunting), household wealth, maternal education, developmental support by an adult caregiver, and country-level early child education proportion. Regression analyses were done for all children aged 3-4 years with ECDI results, and separately for children with functional disabilities and ECDI results. 65 MICS datasets were included. 186 393 children aged 3-4 years had ECDI and language data, corresponding to an estimated represented population of 34 714 992 individuals. Estimated prevalence of on-track overall development as measured by ECDI scores was 65·7% (95% CI 64·2-67·2) for children from a minority or Indigenous language-speaking household, and 76·6% (75·7-77·4) for those from a dominant language-speaking household. After adjustment, dominant language status was associated with increased odds of on-track overall development (adjusted OR 1·54, 95% CI 1·40-1·71), which appeared to be largely driven by significantly increased odds of on-track development in the literacy-numeracy and socioemotional domains. For the represented population aged 2-4 years (n=11 465 601), the estimated prevalence of family-reported functional disability was 3·6% (95% CI 3·0-4·4). For the represented population aged 3-4 years with a functional disability (n=292 691), language status was not associated with on-track overall development (adjusted OR 1·02, 95% CI 0·43-2·45). In a global dataset, children speaking a minority or Indigenous language were less likely to have on-track ECDI scores than those speaking a dominant language. Given the strong positive benefits of speaking an Indigenous language on the health and development of Indigenous children, this disparity is likely to reflect the sociolinguistic marginalisation faced by speakers of minority or Indigenous languages as well as differences in the performance of ECDI in these languages. Global efforts should consider performance of measures and monitor developmental data disaggregated by language status to stimulate efforts to address this disparity. None. For the Spanish, Kaqchikel and K'iche' translations of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

Mothers used wider vocabulary and talked to their six-month-old infants more during shared book reading than when they played with toys.

We compared mothers reading books to six-month-old infants or playing with toys and measured whether the maternal language input influenced the children's spoken vocabulary at 18 months of age. This Taiwanese study recruited 46 dyads and video recorded them while the mothers read books to their infants and played with them with toys at 6 months of age. The mothers' lexical diversity, which is the ratio of different unique words to the total number of words, was measured. We then assessed the children's spoken vocabulary at 18 months. The mother used more diverse vocabulary and a higher number of words when they were reading books than playing with toys with their children (p = 0.001). Maternal lexical diversity at 6 months of age accounted for 14.4% of the unique variance in the number of different words used by the child at 18 months. We believe that this is a novel finding. Mothers used wider vocabulary and talked to their infants more during book reading than when they played with toys. Diverse maternal vocabulary at 6 months of age positively influenced the number of different words their children used at 18 months of age.

THE BODY BETWEEN THE LINK OF THE SUPEREGO IMPERATIVE AND THE CREATIVE LOOP

The objective of this work is to elucidate what body psychoanalysis is about, a body that goes beyond the biological, a body that pulsates, colonized by maternal language and the unconscious. This body establishes the beginning of psychoanalysis with a scientific inflection on medicine at the beginning of the 20th century, with formulations on hysteria. Breaking, thus, with Descartes' speech, I think, therefore, I exist. Lacan, with his return to Freud, approaches the mystery of this speaking body, taking into account the imaginary, symbolic and real registers; bringing up a body that enjoys, in search of a fantasy of completeness, facing an object that has been lost forever. In this way, it is interesting to think about cultural and contemporary ideals, to which this body that goes far beyond the biological is submitted, thus meeting the superegoic dictates of jouissance. This enjoyment can also be extracted from the creationist bias, with the sublimatory possibility of elevating the object to the dignity of the thing, this putting itself in the place of what we lack.

Clinical index to quantify the 1-year risk for common postpartum mental disorders at the time of delivery (PMH CAREPLAN): development and internal validation.

Common postpartum mental health (PMH) disorders such as depression and anxiety are preventable, but determining individual-level risk is difficult. To create and internally validate a clinical risk index for common PMH disorders. Using population-based health administrative data in Ontario, Canada, comprising sociodemographic, clinical and health service variables easily collectible from hospital birth records, we developed and internally validated a predictive model for common PMH disorders and converted the final model into a risk index. We developed the model in 75% of the cohort (n = 152 362), validating it in the remaining 25% (n = 75 772). The 1-year prevalence of common PMH disorders was 6.0%. Independently associated variables (forming the mnemonic PMH CAREPLAN) that made up the risk index were: (P) prenatal care provider; (M) mental health diagnosis history and medications during pregnancy; (H) psychiatric hospital admissions or emergency department visits; (C) conception type and complications; (A) apprehension of newborn by child services (newborn taken into care); (R) region of maternal origin; (E) extremes of gestational age at birth; (P) primary maternal language; (L) lactation intention; (A) maternal age; (N) number of prenatal visits. In the index (scored 0-39), 1-year common PMH disorder risk ranged from 1.5 to 40.5%. Discrimination (C-statistic) was 0.69 in development and validation samples; the 95% confidence interval of expected risk encompassed observed risk for all scores in development and validation samples, indicating adequate risk index calibration. Individual-level risk of developing a common postpartum mental health disorder can be estimated with data feasibly collectable from birth records. Next steps are external validation and evaluation of various cut-off scores for their utility in guiding postpartum individuals to interventions that reduce their risk of illness.

Situation of the Practice of Mother Tongues in Cameroon and Proposal of Methods Aimed at Facilitating Their Learning

The purpose of this study was to highlight the situation of the practice of mother tongue in Cameroon in order to provide the community with a relevant technique capable of facilitating its teaching-learning in the neediest areas. For this, the work was jointly carried out in the field and indoors. Indoors, it was a question of refining the approaches as well as the means of their application, of processing the results obtained, then of writing the final report. In the field, it was a matter of communicating about the project and carrying out the tests. Many facts emerge from this study. Thus, the closer you get to rural areas, the more the mother tongue is used, and vice versa. In both rural and urban areas, the mother tongue is used much more in families with low purchasing power. In detail, however, people from the Northern part of Cameroon (Adamaoua, Far North, and North), regardless of their area of ​​residence (in their Region of origin or not), are those who speak the maternal language the most. Many endogenous and exogenous factors can disturb the expected results; here we can cite education, the consideration attributed to ancestral culture, and the motivation of children. The most appropriate technique in urban areas to improve the practice of the mother tongue within families is that based on the alphabet (APAA); this approach can be beneficially combined with that based on the repetition of sentences and words by children without bonuses (AARPSB). It is all the more relevant as it also offers parents the opportunity to improve while supporting their children. Overall, the vast majority of parents were flattered by this project.

Risk factors for early language delay in children within a minority ethnic, bilingual, deprived environment (Born in Bradford’s Better Start): a UK community birth cohort study

BackgroundPreschool language skills and language delay predict academic and socioemotional outcomes. Children from deprived environments are at a higher risk of language delay, and both minority ethnic and bilingual children...

Health literacy of organisations – a cornerstone for fair health outcome

Abstract Unhealthy food habits are included in the factors behind several severe health conditions. Their unequal distribution in the population has a complex background. Putting the problem “How can we make our resources more reachable?” instead of “How can we reach these groups?” changes focus from individual to organisational health literacy which opens windows of opportunity. A public health unit with commission to contribute to close health gaps identified a need to systematically develop its own health literacy. Critical examining was conducted by the quan/qual tool Health equlibrium methodology. Reflections on accessability and acceptability of resources offered by the unit were documented and used for methodolocigal development. Aims were to develop professional judgment on how to contribute to fair health outcome and to improve support for healthy habits. Data used were collected 2019-2021.What hinders people from healthier food habits? How can we adjust our practice? Documentation included organised breakfast-talks, food-talk with cultural interpreters, lectures with sports-club health ambassadors, health groups with people of different maternal language, meetings with parents at open pre-school, staff in health promotion commissions and elderly. Problems identified were high costs on healthy food and on travels to vending points, traditional large sugar-intake, marketing of unhealthy food to children, failure to understand information from Swedish Food Agency (except the Keyhole food labelling which was much appreciated). A model for shop-walks with cultural interpreters, more accessible versions of leaflet-materials and dialogue-meetings about food in different settings were developed. Reflections on the unit's communication lead to change of settings for meetings and refined ways to talk about parenthood, women's role and aspects of ethnicity. Systematic self-reflection strenghtens organisational health literacy and may contribute to fair health outcomes Key messages

The impact of a specialist home-visiting intervention on the language outcomes of young mothers and their children: a pragmatic randomised controlled trial

BackgroundYoung mothers are more likely to provide a suboptimal early language environment for their children who in turn show impairments in their language development, yet few studies have used observational methods to assess the effectiveness of home-visiting programmes in improving the language outcomes of young mothers and their children. The Family Nurse Partnership (FNP) is a licensed home-visiting intervention developed in the USA and introduced into practice in England. The intervention involves up to 64 structured home visits from early pregnancy until the child's second birthday by specially recruited and trained Family Nurses. We assessed the effectiveness of FNP in improving the language outcomes of first-time teenage mothers and their infants.MethodWe conducted a pragmatic, non-blinded, randomised controlled trial to test whether the FNP programme improved mothers’ and children’s language production at 24 months postpartum. Eligible participants were nulliparous, aged 19 years or younger, and were recruited at less than 25 weeks’ gestation from community midwifery settings (Country). Pregnant young mothers were randomly assigned to FNP plus usual care (n = 243) or usual care alone (n = 233). At 24 months postpartum, mother–child dyads were observed during a standardised free-play task with their first-born child and features of their language production was coded. Data was analysed using multi-level modelling; linear or poisson/negative binomial regression models were used as appropriate.ResultsA small effect of FNP on mothers’ productive language was detected, where mothers in the FNP group demonstrated higher mean length of utterances than mothers who received usual care alone, mean difference (adjusted by minimisation variables and by site, linear regression) = 0.10, p < .05, 95% CI (0.004–0.20), d = .18. No differences were detected between groups regarding other characteristics of maternal language or children’s language outcomes.ConclusionThis observational study conducted within the context of a randomised-controlled trial suggests that the FNP home-visiting programme may have a small, but potentially important impact on young mothers’ speech to their toddlers. Exploratory analyses identified family environment, maternal, and child related predictors of the language outcomes of young mothers and their offspring.Trial registration This trial is registered with ISRCTN, number ISRCTN23019866, 20/04/2009.

Increases in Language Input are Sustained among Mothers of Low SES: Evidence from a Randomized Controlled Trial

SYNOPSIS Objective. This randomized controlled trial examined whether the quantity and quality of maternal language input were increased through the 3Ts Home Visiting (3Ts-HV) intervention early in toddlerhood and whether increases in maternal language input were sustained over time among families of low SES, controlling for maternal education level, language skill, depressive symptoms, family adversity, child age, child language skills, and the length of recording. Design. 149 mother-toddler dyads of low SES were randomized to receive either the 3Ts-HV intervention (n = 76) or Healthy Lifestyle control (n = 73) curriculum from 14 to 20 months. Both quantity (tokens) and quality (lexical diversity, syntactic complexity, and use of complex sentences and wh-questions) of maternal language input were assessed at 14, 20, 26, 32, and 38 months. Hierarchical linear models were estimated to compare maternal language input between groups over time. Growth trajectories were modeled during the post-curriculum period alone, controlling for baseline maternal language input. Results. Intervention mothers had significantly larger increases in both quantity and quality of language input than Control mothers at 20 months. Intervention mothers’ increases in both quantity and quality of language input were sustained at 26, 32, and 38 months. Conclusions. Language input can be promoted early in toddlerhood and sustained over time among families facing socioeconomic disadvantages. Fostering sustainable increases in maternal language behaviors with very young children among families of low SES is a critical first step in addressing early language input disparities.

Cognitively stimulating maternal language as predictor for vocabulary growth

Maternal interaction behavior, particularly maternal language input, is considered to be one of the key factors for child vocabulary development. Previous studies have shown that a higher quantity and diversity of maternal language input is associated with faster vocabulary development. In the present study, we examined cognitive-verbal stimulation as a specific aspect of maternal input, controlling for other relevant internal child characteristics and external environmental influences. Additionally, we compared the effects of cognitive stimulation on vocabulary development with a standard measurement of maternal language input, such as its quantity, to identify specific the effects of cognitive-verbally stimulating interaction behavior. We used data from the Newborn Cohort Study of the German National Educational Panel Study (N = 1127 families) and conducted latent growth curve modeling to examine the vocabulary growth of children between 3 and 7 years of age. As control variables, we also included maternal education and household income in the analyses as well as the children’s age, gender, and initial vocabulary level when they were 2 years old, their phonological working memory, and whether they were learning another native language other than German. The results indicated that general aspects of maternal input, such as the quantity and length of the utterances of maternal language input for 2‑years-olds, were relevant in the earlier stages of vocabulary development, while cognitive stimulation was an important predictor of growth across the later stages of vocabulary development in 3‑ to 7‑year-olds.

A longitudinal study of Estonian mothers’ self-reported language teaching practices and children’s language skills

This study explored associations between mothers’ language teaching practices and children’s language skills concurrently and longitudinally, while also taking into account the children’s sex and mothers’ education. Estonian mothers of 76 children reported their language teaching practices at child ages 3;0 and 4;0. Children’s language comprehension and production were measured via the examiner-administered New Reynell Developmental Language Scales (NRDLS). The results indicated that at Wave 1, girls scored higher on language comprehension and production than boys. Mothers’ higher education predicted higher scores on language production. Maternal corrective feedback was a negative predictor of children’s concurrent language comprehension. At Wave 2, neither maternal teaching practices, maternal education nor child’s sex predicted the language measures of interest. The longitudinal results showed that later language production scores were negatively predicted by mothers’ corrective feedback. Yet, the strongest predictors of both language scores were the scores of language comprehension and production measured 1 year earlier. Moreover, maternal language teaching practices at Wave 2 were predicted by mothers’ early language teaching practices, but not by children’s earlier language skills.

Délire de filiation en temps de guerre et hallucinations de voix anglophones chez un patient schizophrène. La subjectivation d’un héritage familial en creux

AimsThis article describes the clinical treatment of a schizophrenic patient presenting a delusion of filiation, connected to the era of the Second World War, with auditory hallucinations in English (his maternal language being French): that is to say a very uncommon phenomenon. We hypothesized a “genealogical haunting” (as theorized by Maria Torok and Nicolas Abraham). MethodA schizophrenic patient was hospitalized with a case of delusion and a very strong pathological reluctance. He told us progressively about a very rich delusion of filiation whose particularity was the appearance of auditory hallucinations in English, during the first breakdown. We tried to analyze this phenomenon as a genealogical haunting, and to define its origin, while the patient himself was concerned with the link between his origins and his schizophrenic illness. While his delusion persisted, he called upon his interest in genealogy and processes of figuration (metaphoric and objects-messengers, dreams, mythology). ResultsAs clinical interviews familiarized us with the patient's family history, we were able to better understand his hallucinations in English, thanks to the reconstruction of the familial past, and the search for the nucleus of the delusion, thus improving introjection and the symbolization of a traumatic past. This was associated with a lasting improvement in the patient's symptoms, increased psychic freedom, and the opening up of new possibilities in his life. DiscussionLocating the origin of a crypt in a past generation is obviously a delicate task, especially when the crypt appears in the words of a patient suffering from profound delusion. Nevertheless, the proposition of psychotherapy to a patient whose delusions concern a family secret (to what extent the patient's beliefs are truly delusional is difficult to determine, in the absence of hard evidence about his family history) can allow for the elaboration and the symbolization that are necessary in calming – or, in the best case – minimizing the delusion. ConclusionThe transgenerational approach to the effects of genealogical haunting can enlarge our knowledge about the most enigmatic pathological productions, in this case, auditory hallucinations in English in a French-speaking patient. Incorporating this transgenerational approach into psychoanalytic psychotherapy could prove therapeutic, including for certain schizophrenic patients.

Early maternal language input and classroom instructional quality in relation to children's literacy trajectories from pre-kindergarten through fifth grade.

Both early childhood maternal language input and the quality of classroom instruction in elementary school have been shown to be important environmental supports in predicting children's literacy skill development. However, no studies have simultaneously examined these two environmental supports in relation to children's early language skills and later literacy skills across elementary school. The current study examined how multiple years of early maternal language input from 6 to 36 months and later classroom instructional quality from pre-kindergarten (pre-K) through fifth grade were related to children's early language at 36 months and later literacy trajectories in word recognition and reading comprehension across elementary school. The study included a diverse, population-representative sample of 1,292 children who were born in low-wealth rural communities and followed through fifth grade. Video recordings and subsequent transcripts of mother-child shared picture book tasks in the home at four timepoints during early childhood were used to assess maternal diversity of vocabulary, utterance complexity, and engagement (wh-questions) during book sharing. The quality of instruction in elementary school was assessed using classroom observations from pre-K through fifth grade. Maternal complexity and engagement were indirectly related to children's literacy trajectories across pre-K to fifth grade through effects on early child language at 36 months. Higher-quality classroom instruction was not reliably related to concurrent literacy skills in pre-K through fifth grade. Findings suggested the enduring importance of early maternal language input in predicting children's early language and later literacy skill development during elementary school. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Evaluating Interactive Language for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in Different Contexts.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by impairments in the use of appropriate interactive language (including structural language and pragmatic skills) in social contexts. However, the phenotype and causes of interactive language deficits in children with ASD, in different contexts, are still unclear. In this study, we examined the structural language and pragmatic skills of children with ASD in four contexts: playing, drawing, reading, and free talking. We found that while children with ASD did not exhibit deficits in structural language (e.g., vocabulary and utterance), they clearly exhibit deficits in pragmatic skills. We, also, found that contexts played a key role in the use of interactive language by children with ASD. For example, the reading context had a significant impact on the diversity of vocabulary, while the playing and drawing contexts made an important contribution to the formation of complex utterances. The free talking context, on the other hand, contributed to producing more turns. Furthermore, Spearman’s rank correlation analysis was used to examine the relationships between maternal input and children’s language output. We found that the correlations between structural language and maternal input in children with ASD were not as high as revealed in previous studies, while a, relatively, obvious relationship was found between pragmatic skills and maternal input. Specifically, the total number of turns (TNT) for a child with ASD is related to their mother’s TNT, as are the total number of words (TNW) and number of different words (NDW). These results suggest that (1) assessment of pragmatic skills should be included in the evaluation of children with suspected ASD (2) the influence of context on pragmatic skills needs to be taken into account, when assessing the pragmatic development of children with ASD; and (3) the impact of maternal language on children’s language use is of great importance, for children with ASD.

Vocabulary and reading speed in the majority language are affected by maternal language proficiency and language exposure at home: a study of language minority bilingual children in Italy

ABSTRACT Environmental sources of variance in the Italian vocabulary and reading skills of bilingual primary school children from immigrant families (or language minority bilingual children (LMBC)) in Italy were investigated, and the LMBC’s skill levels were compared to those of their monolingual classmates. A total of 140 children from the first, third, and fifth grades were administered standardized tests of receptive vocabulary, word reading, and nonword reading skills. LMBC’s exposure to Italian at home and their mothers’ Italian proficiency were reported by mothers. Immigrant mothers’ Italian proficiency was a significant predictor of vocabulary and word reading speed but not of word accuracy or nonword reading. High levels of Italian exposure at home in combination with low levels of maternal Italian proficiency was a negative predictor of vocabulary; high exposure to Italian at home was positively associated with word reading speed and negatively associated with nonword reading speed. LMBC had lower vocabulary scores but did not differ from monolingual children in measures of reading skill. The findings underscore the importance of the quality of language exposure for language development and replicate findings that bilingual children show decoding skills on a par with monolingual children despite smaller vocabularies.

Supplemental Material for Early Maternal Language Input and Classroom Instructional Quality in Relation to Children’s Literacy Trajectories From Pre-Kindergarten Through Fifth Grade

Supplemental Material for Early Maternal Language Input and Classroom Instructional Quality in Relation to Children’s Literacy Trajectories From Pre-Kindergarten Through Fifth Grade