Maternal Incarceration Research Articles

Maternal Incarceration During Pregnancy and Infant Birthweight

The primary aim of this study was to examine whether incarceration during pregnancy is associated with infant birthweight. Our second objective was to illustrate the sensitivity of the relationship between infant birthweight and exposure to prison during pregnancy to the method used to measure and model this exposure. The data consisted of delivery records of 360 infants born between January 1, 2002 and December 31, 2004 to pregnant women incarcerated in Texas state prisons. Weighted linear regression, adjusting for potential confounders, was used to model infant birth weight as a function of: (1) the number of weeks of pregnancy spent incarcerated (Method A) and (2) the gestational age at admission to prison (Method B), respectively. These two exposure measures were modeled as continuous variables with and without linear spline transformation. The association between incarceration during pregnancy and infant birthweight appears strongest among infants born to women incarcerated during the first trimester and very weak to non-existent among infants born to women incarcerated after the first trimester. With Method A, but not Method B, linear spline transformation had a distinct effect on the shape of the relationship between exposure and outcome. The association between exposure to prison during pregnancy and infant birth weight appears to be positive only among women incarcerated during the first trimester of pregnancy and the relation is sensitive to the method used to measure and model exposure to prison during pregnancy.

Violence Exposure Among Children of Incarcerated Mothers

Social workers are becoming increasingly aware of the unique experiences faced by children of incarcerated parents. Little is known, however, about their experiences prior to their parents being incarcerated. Using data from a broader study of incarcerated women, we examined women’s accounts of their children’s exposure to violence prior to maternal incarceration. Open-ended interviews addressed family and relationship history, physical and psychological victimization, lifetime delinquency and crime, and interactions with service and justice systems. Interviews were analyzed using ATLAS/ti software and a grounded-theory approach. The emergent themes revealed a myriad of consequences experienced by the children, including child witnessing of violence, emotional sequelae, bodily harm from abuse and neglect, sexual abuse, and birth defects from prenatal violence. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

The Impact of Maternal Imprisonment on Children's Educational Achievement: Results from Children in Chicago Public Schools

This paper examines how the cognitive skills of elementary school-aged children are affected by having a mother enter prison, using panel data on approximately 7,000 children for 12 years. To identify the effect of maternal imprisonment, change in test scores of children whose mothers enter prison are compared with the change in test scores of a nonexperimental comparison group controlling for observed and unobserved fixed characteristics. Results suggest that maternal imprisonment is not associated with a decline in children's reading or math standardized test scores.

The Impact of Maternal Imprisonment on Children’s Educational Achievement

The Impact of Maternal Imprisonment on Children’s Educational Achievement

Impact of maternal imprisonment on children's probability of grade retention

This paper examines the effect of maternal imprisonment on children's probability of retention using propensity score matching. The sample consists of children attending Chicago Public Schools during years 1991 and 2004 between grade levels kindergarten and eighth grade. These children have mothers who either enter Illinois state prison or Cook county jail during an eight and an half year sampling period. The effect of maternal imprisonment is identified using a difference-in-difference strategy on a sample of children matched by different algorithms. I find that children whose mothers enter prison are less likely to experience grade retention than their matched counterparts at least in the immediate years following the mother's prison entry. These results are robust to different matching schemes as well as to different levels of maternal contact prior to the mother's incarceration.

Involving Caregiving Grandmothers in Family Interventions when Mothers with Substance Use Problems are Incarcerated

The alarming rate of incarceration of women disproportionately affects women of color, frequently intersects with the women's substance use problems, and often results in grandmothers providing care for their grandchildren during their daughters' incarceration. Numerous factors complicate the grandmothers' caregiving experiences and contribute to strains that exceed those typically associated with grandparent caregiving. Such complicating factors include the stresses associated with their daughters' substance use problems and incarceration; the complex biopsychosocial needs of many of their grandchildren; the challenging relational issues they must address; and often, the long-term, multifaceted effects of poverty. Despite the critical roles they play, the multiple vulnerabilities they face, and the potential for multigenerational, culturally relevant family interventions to yield gains for all three generations, grandmothers have received little attention in intervention research with this group of families. This paper provides a theoretical and empirical rationale for the inclusion of caregiving grandmothers in interventions and research with families affected by maternal incarceration and substance use problems, in general, and for the promise of multifamily groups, in particular. Strategies for tailoring multifamily groups with this population of families are also included.

Factors Associated With Young Children’s Opportunities for Maintaining Family Relationships During Maternal Incarceration*

Abstract: Children affected by maternal incarceration experience challenges maintaining continuous family relationships because of changes in caregivers, separation from siblings, and limited contact with mothers. In this mixed‐method study, we investigated maternal and contextual factors associated with continuity in family relationships of children living with relatives because of their mother’s incarceration. Interviews with 92 incarcerated mothers revealed that children were more likely to live in continuous caregiving arrangements when mothers felt that the caregiver was their choice, when children lived with fathers, and when the mother‐caregiver relationship was more positive. In addition, most mothers were concerned about the quality or stability of care when expressing a preference for children’s living arrangements.

Representations of family relationships in children living with custodial grandparents

Children's representations of family relationships were examined in relation to grandparent responsivity and depression, family sociodemographic risks, and children's behavior problems in custodial grandparent families. Using multiple methods, data were collected from 79 families with children aged 3 to 7.5 years. In 37 families, children were raised by grandparents as the result of maternal incarceration and, in 42 families, children lived with grandparents because of other parental problems. Results indicated that children with representations of less optimal family relationships and children whose grandparents were less responsive to them at home were more likely to exhibit externalizing behavior problems. In addition, children were more likely to include relationship violence in their story stem enactments when grandparents reported elevated depressive symptoms. Results suggest links among grandparent depression, quality of children's family relationships, and children's behavior problems in grandparent-headed households.

Building a therapeutic care team: Foster care intervention when a mother is imprisoned – a case study

This paper presents the case study of a family which was supported by a Victorian foster care agency over a two-year period whilst both parents were imprisoned. The article aims to raise awareness amongst practitioners across a range of fie Ids of practice about the issues faced by the children of prisoners, and to document effective and collaborative practices which enable the impact of parental incarceration to be managed and minimised for the children involved. The paper is based on data gathered for a study examining the impact of maternal incarceration on young people conducted by one of the authors. Through focusing on one family, the paper discusses the increasing phenomenon of mothers in prison and the challenges this presents both to their families and to practitioners. The paper concludes by reflecting on the process and suggests that collaborative work with the families of prisoners requires not just good intentions but resources, commitment from all parties, and mutually respectful relationships.

The effect of maternal incarceration on adult offspring involvement in the criminal justice system

Researchers have estimated that 63 percent of incarcerated women have one or more minor children and most reported living with their children prior to incarceration (Mumola, 2000). Unfortunately, children of incarcerated parents have been a relatively invisible population in the research on the collateral consequences of incarceration. The goal of the current study was to examine the long-term effect of maternal incarceration on adult offspring involvement in the criminal justice system using data from the mother child sample of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Based on existing research, it was hypothesized that the adult offspring of incarcerated mothers would be more likely to have been convicted of a crime or to be sentenced to probation. The effect of maternal incarceration on correlates of criminal behavior in adolescence and early adulthood (e.g., negative peer influences, positive home environment) was also modeled to assess possible indirect effects. The results highlighted the direct effect of incarceration on adult offspring involvement in the criminal justice system, but parental incarceration had little association with correlates of criminal behavior.

The Invisible Victims: Children of Incarcerated Mothers

During the last several years the number of incarcerated mothers has steadily increased. Subsequently the number of children involved is also increasing. While substantial research has been done on the topic of children with incarcerated mothers, the voices of the children on the matter are often invisible from research. When a child’s mother is incarcerated they are often placed into a relatives home, or into foster care. Children become vulnerable and many times do not know how to deal with these issues, and do not know how to express how they feel. Many times children are left to make sense of the situation on their own. The negative influences on children in regards to maternal incarceration are endless. The stories of how children of incarcerated mothers are affected by the matter need to be heard. Doing so may provide insight into how children deal with the issue of maternal incarceration, and what helps them, if anything, to overcome their struggles and address their feelings towards their incarcerated mother. Familiarizing ourselves of the struggles of children with incarcerated mothers may help in the development of more support programs that will ultimately make life for these children a bit easier to deal with.

Children's Family Environments and Intellectual Outcomes During Maternal Incarceration

Despite the dramatic increase in incarcerated mothers that has occurred in the past decades, there is a paucity of family research focusing on the children affected by maternal imprisonment. The present study investigated family environments and intellectual outcomes in 60 children between the ages of 2 and 7 years during their mothers’ incarceration. Multiple methods were used to collect data from children, mothers, and children's nonmaternal caregivers. Results indicated that most children experienced multiple risks across contextual levels. Cumulative caregiver sociodemographic risks predicted children's cognitive abilities, although quality of the home and family environment mediated this relation. Results underscore the importance of children's family environments and highlight the need for increased monitoring, service delivery, and longitudinal research with children of incarcerated mothers and their families.

The outcomes of pregnancy among imprisoned women: a systematic review

To investigate the association between maternal imprisonment during pregnancy and perinatal outcomes. Systematic review and meta-analysis. Prisons in developed countries. Imprisoned pregnant women. Two reviewers extracted the data independently according to a fixed protocol. Studies were included if they were cohort or case-control studies with women identified as being imprisoned at any point during pregnancy and if they included a comparison group of women who had not been imprisoned. Case series without a comparison group of women who were not imprisoned were excluded, as were studies that did not include information on the pre-specified outcomes. Perinatal or infant death, stillbirth, preterm delivery, low birthweight, fetal anomalies and use of breast milk substitutes. Of 28 relevant papers, 10 met the inclusion criteria, involving 1960 imprisoned pregnant women and 10,858 controls. There were significant differences in results between studies comparing imprisoned women with population controls and those making comparisons with disadvantaged control women. Imprisoned women are more likely to deliver prematurely and have a low birthweight baby than population control women. However, when compared with a similarly disadvantaged group, imprisoned woman are less likely to have a stillbirth or low birthweight baby, suggesting imprisonment may have a beneficial effect. Particular perinatal outcomes appear to be improved in imprisoned women compared with similarly disadvantaged women. Imprisonment of the mother has a beneficial effect on the birthweight of her baby.

Representations of Attachment Relationships in Children of Incarcerated Mothers

Representations of attachment relationships were assessed in 54 children ages 2.5 to 7.5 years whose mothers were currently incarcerated. Consistent with their high-risk status, most (63%) children were classified as having insecure relationships with mothers and caregivers. Secure relationships were more likely when children lived in a stable caregiving situation, when children reacted to separation from the mother with sadness rather than anger, and when children were older. Common reactions to initial separation included sadness, worry, confusion, anger, loneliness, sleep problems, and developmental regressions. Results highlight need for support in families affected by maternal imprisonment, especially efforts to promote stable, continuous placements for children, in addition to underscoring the importance of longitudinal research with this growing but understudied group.

The effects of maternal incarceration on adolescent children

This study examined aspects of the school, community, and home adjustment of 58 adolescents between the ages of 13 and 20 whose mothers were incarcerated. High rates of school drop-out (36%) were observed. Dropping out was related to their mother's educational attainment. These adolescents were more than four times as likely to be out of school than a sample of their best friends; four times more likely to be suspended; three times more likely to be significantly absent from school and nearly four times as likely to be failing classes. More than half of these children required school visits for disciplinary reasons during the previous 12 months, and more than a quarter of them had been arrested. School problems and delinquent behavior might be related to the extent of maternal drug use. Although these adolescents initially experienced difficulty adapting to structured placements, those who were living in homes with rules and with family members had better educational outcomes, as did children who communicated frequently with their mothers.

The Multiple Impacts of TANF, ASFA, and Mandatory Drug Sentencing for Families Affected by Maternal Incarceration

The Multiple Impacts of TANF, ASFA, and Mandatory Drug Sentencing for Families Affected by Maternal Incarceration

COMPLEX PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH NEEDS OF RURAL INCARCERATED WOMEN

Despite the growing numbers of incarcerated women, there still remain few systematic analyses of their unique physical and mental health needs. A descriptive design was used in a convenience sample of 30 incarcerated female offenders in a rural detention center to investigate the complex health care needs of this population and formulate appropriate community-based nursing interventions. The participants received a detailed physical and mental health assessment, as well as screening for alcohol and drug abuse. Sixty-three percent of the women reported drug problems and 80% reported alcohol problems, while 84% reported physical or sexual abuse. Serious health problems were identified, including AIDS, STDs, and delirium tremens. Scores on the Global Severity Index of the Brief Symptom Inventory showed that 70% percent of the women were in the clinical range for mental health problems. The scores on the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support were negatively correlated with the Global Severity Index on the BSI ( r = -.377, p =. 04) which may indicate some protective effect of social support with regards to psychiatric distress. The data demonstrate a need to develop a brief objective mental health screening test for this specific population to identify psychiatric problems that require immediate attention during the incarceration period. The results also highlight incarceration as an excellent opportunity for the advanced practice nurse to initiate focused health care interventions and other strategies which can foster incarcerated women's re-entry into the community. More research is needed in this underserved group, particularly concerning issues of maternal incarceration, STD prevention, detoxification, psychiatric treatment, and sources of social support.

When Moms Are Incarcerated: The Needs of Children, Mothers, and Caregivers

Maternal incarceration increasingly contributes to the number of children placed in kinship care arrangements. The needs of incarcerated women, their children, and the children's caregivers have historically been dealt with in isolation. Practitioners across substantive areas of corrections, child welfare, and aging must think creatively and collaboratively about ways to positively assist these families. This paper examines the needs of children, imprisoned women, and the children's kinship caregivers from an ecological theoretical perspective. Key findings from evaluation studies of programs designed to strengthen families affected by maternal incarceration are discussed. Finally, interventions that increase adaptive exchanges between incarcerated women, their children, and the children's caregivers are suggested.