Maternal Caregiving Behavior Research Articles

Maternal alexithymia and caregiving behavior: the role of executive functioning -A FinnBrain Birth Cohort study.

The growing interest in parental cognition calls for research clarifying how cognition interacts with other parenting determinants to shape caregiving behavior. We studied the interplay between executive functioning (EF; cognitive processes that enable goal-directed thinking and behavior) and alexithymic traits (characterized by emotion processing/regulation difficulties) in relation to emotional availability (EA; the dyad's ability to share an emotionally healthy relationship). As EF has been reported to shape parents' ability to regulate thoughts and emotions during caregiving, we examined whether EF moderated the association between maternal alexithymic traits, and EA. Among 119 mothers with 2.5-year-olds drawn from the FinnBrain Birth Cohort, EF was measured with Cogstate tasks, alexithymic traits with the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20), and caregiving with the Emotional Availability Scales (EAS). More alexithymic traits on the TAS-20 subscale Externally Oriented Thinking (EOT) were associated with poorer caregiving in a hierarchical regression analysis (ΔR2 = 0.05, p = .01). A marginally significant moderation effect was found when adding the EOTxEF interaction term to the model (ΔR2 = 0.03, p = .06). These associations weakened slightly when controlling for education level. Estimation of simple slopes and a Johnson-Neyman figure indicated a significant association between higher EOT and lower EAS, that increased in strength as EF decreased from the group mean level. The influence of cognitive alexithymic traits on EA could be especially pronounced among low EF parents, but further studies are needed to support and extend the findings. The potential role of parental reflective functioning in this context is discussed.

Maternal childhood trauma, caregiving behavior, and child cognitive development in the context of drug addiction.

Exposure to childhood trauma confers intergenerational risk on child development. However, the mechanism linking a mother's childhood trauma with her child's cognitive development remains poorly understood. This study recruited 71 mother-child dyads affected by substance use disorder from local, community-based, outpatient substance use treatment programs. Maternal exposure to childhood trauma, caregiving behavior, and child cognitive development were assessed in each mother-child dyad. These were measured through a comprehensive biopsychosocial interview, an observed dyadic interaction coded using the Coding Interactive Behavior system, and the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Screening Test, respectively. We hypothesized that compromised caregiving behavior would mediate a negative relationship between maternal childhood trauma and child cognitive development. Analyses did not support this hypothesis. Specifically, maternal childhood trauma was not significantly associated with child cognitive development nor the four dimensions of maternal caregiving behavior. However, caregiving behavior (specifically maternal sensitivity and limit setting) was associated with child cognitive development, when controlling for maternal childhood trauma and child age. The lack of associations observed suggests that protective factors may buffer the intergenerational impact of childhood trauma. Furthermore, the relationship between quality of caregiving and child cognitive development highlights the importance of interventions which foster sensitive caregiving behaviors that may bolster child cognitive development in the context of maternal substance use disorder and maternal childhood trauma. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Maternal childhood trauma and observed maternal care behaviors with 4-month-old infants.

To examine the relationship between maternal childhood trauma and early maternal caregiving behaviors (MCB). Participants included 74 mother-infant dyads (maternal age 20-45 years; ethnicity 64.9% Latina) from a longitudinal pregnancy cohort study. Maternal childhood trauma was assessed during pregnancy with the childhood trauma questionnaire (CTQ). Observed mother-infant interactions at infant age 4 months were coded utilizing modified Ainsworth's MCB rating scales that assessed a range of behaviors (e.g., acceptance, soothing, and delight) which we analyze grouped together and will summarize using the term "maternal sensitivity." Linear regressions tested the associations between maternal childhood trauma and MCB. Primary analyses examined the relationships of MCB with (a) any maternal childhood trauma (moderate or greater exposure to physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, and/or emotional neglect) and (b) cumulative childhood trauma. Secondary analyses examined the relationships between each type of childhood trauma and MCB. Exposure to childhood trauma was not associated with MCB (p = .88). Cumulative childhood trauma score was associated with lower scores on MCB (β = -1.88, p < .05). Emotional abuse and emotional neglect were individually associated with lower scores on MCB (β = -1.78, p = .04; β = -1.55, p = .04, respectively). Physical abuse, sexual abuse, and physical neglect were not associated with MCB. Many mothers exposed to childhood trauma may be resilient to negative effects on parenting behaviors, while specific experiences of childhood trauma (emotional abuse, emotional neglect, and cumulative childhood trauma) may predict less sensitive early parenting behaviors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Lower maternal emotional availability is related to increased attention toward fearful faces during infancy

It has been suggested that infants’ age-typical attention biases for faces and facial expressions have an inherent connection with the parent–infant interaction. However, only a few previous studies have addressed this topic. To investigate the association between maternal caregiving behaviors and an infant’s attention for emotional faces, 149 mother–infant dyads were assessed when the infants were 8 months. Caregiving behaviors were observed during free-play interactions and coded using the Emotional Availability Scales. The composite score of four parental dimensions, that are sensitivity, structuring, non-intrusiveness, and non-hostility, was used in the analyses. Attention disengagement from faces was measured using eye tracking and face-distractor paradigm with neutral, happy, and fearful faces and scrambled-face control pictures as stimuli. The main finding was that lower maternal emotional availability was related to an infant’s higher attention to fearful faces (p = .042), when infant sex and maternal age, education, and concurrent depressive and anxiety symptoms were controlled. This finding indicates that low maternal emotional availability may sensitize infants’ emotion processing system for the signals of fear at least during this specific age around 8 months. The significance of the increased attention toward fearful faces during infancy is an important topic for future research.

Postpartum Depression and Maternal Care: Exploring the Complex Effects on Mothers and Infants.

Postpartum depression (PPD) is a common and debilitating mental health condition affecting many mothers worldwide. This review article aims to explore the complex effects of PPD on mothers and infants, focusing on maternal care. The transition to motherhood is a critical period characterized by numerous physical, psychological, and social changes, making women vulnerable to the onset of PPD. Consequently, PPD can significantly impact a mother's ability to provide optimal care for her infant, leading to potential adverse consequences for both parties. The article synthesizes existing research literature on the topic, encompassing studies from various disciplines, including psychology, psychiatry, obstetrics, and pediatrics. It begins by providing an overview of the prevalence and risk factors associated with PPD, emphasizing the importance of early detection and intervention. The impact of PPD on maternal caregiving behaviors, such as bonding, sensitivity, and responsiveness, is then examined, highlighting the potential disruptions in the mother-infant relationship. Furthermore, the article delves into the potential consequences of impaired maternal care on infant development, including emotional, cognitive, and social domains. Several factors contributing to the complex interplay between PPD and maternal care are discussed, including hormonal changes, psychosocial stressors, and the influence of social support networks. The review also addresses the bidirectional nature of the mother-infant relationship, whereby infant characteristics and behaviors can exacerbate or mitigate the effects of PPD on maternal care. Moreover, the article explores the role of healthcare providers and the importance of implementing effective screening, assessment, and treatment strategies for PPD to promote optimal maternal-infant outcomes. By consolidating current knowledge on the topic, this review article provides valuable insights into the multifaceted effects of PPD on both mothers and infants. Recognizing the significance of maternal care and understanding the mechanisms through which PPD disrupts it can inform the development of targeted interventions to promote early detection, effective treatment, and supportive interventions for mothers experiencing PPD. Ultimately, improving maternal mental health and enhancing maternal-infant relationships can yield long-term positive effects on mothers' and infants' well-being and development.

Duration of Breastfeeding and Supportive Paternal Caregiving in Early Childhood and the Potential Mediating Function of Maternal Caregiving.

Supportive paternal caregiving is influenced by contextual factors, including maternal caregiving behaviors. Although longer periods of breastfeeding have been found to be associated with higher levels of maternal supportive parenting, it remains unknown whether the benefits of breastfeeding also extend to fathers' supportive caregiving. This study tested the indirect relation between the duration of breastfeeding and paternal supportive parenting through maternal supportive parenting. Participating families (N = 623) were from the Behavior Outlook Norwegian Developmental Study, a population-based longitudinal study in Southeast Norway. Path analysis was used to test associations between the duration of breastfeeding in the first year (parent report) and paternal supportive parenting (observed, 36 months), as potentially mediated by maternal supportive parenting (observed, 24 months). After controlling for sociodemographic and birth factors, a longer duration of breastfeeding was indirectly associated with higher levels of observed paternal supportive parenting through maternal supportive parenting. The current findings suggest that the longer breastfeeding duration during the first year of life (i.e., infancy) might have important implications for both maternal and paternal supportive parenting in toddlerhood.

The importance of oxytocin neurons in the supraoptic nucleus for breastfeeding in mice.

The hormone oxytocin, secreted from oxytocin neurons in the paraventricular (PVH) and supraoptic (SO) hypothalamic nuclei, promotes parturition, milk ejection, and maternal caregiving behaviors. Previous experiments with whole-body oxytocin knockout mice showed that milk ejection was the unequivocal function of oxytocin, whereas parturition and maternal behaviors were less dependent on oxytocin. Whole-body knockout, however, could induce the enhancement of expression of related gene(s), a phenomenon called genetic compensation, which may hide the actual functions of oxytocin. In addition, the relative contributions of oxytocin neurons in the PVH and SO have not been well documented. Here, we show that females with conditional knockout of oxytocin gene in both the PVH and SO undergo grossly normal parturition and maternal caregiving behaviors, while dams with a smaller number of remaining oxytocin-expressing neurons exhibit severe impairments in breastfeeding, leading to the death of their pups within 24 hours after birth. We also found that the growth of pups is normal even under oxytocin conditional knockout in PVH and SO as long as pups survive the next day of delivery, suggesting that the reduced oxytocin release affects the onset of lactation most severely. These phenotypes are largely recapitulated by SO-specific oxytocin conditional knockout, indicating the unequivocal role of oxytocin neurons in the SO in successful breastfeeding. Given that oxytocin neurons not only secrete oxytocin but also non-oxytocin neurotransmitters or neuropeptides, we further performed cell ablation of oxytocin neurons in the PVH and SO. We found that cell ablation of oxytocin neurons leads to no additional abnormalities over the oxytocin conditional knockout, suggesting that non-oxytocin ligands expressed by oxytocin neurons have negligible functions on the responses measured in this study. Collectively, our findings confirm the dispensability of oxytocin for parturition or maternal behaviors, as well as the importance of SO-derived oxytocin for breastfeeding.

One week of maternal separation induces more frequent, but less predictable, maternal caregiving behaviors.

Rodent models of early life adversity disrupt typical interactions between dams and offspring, impacting pup development over the lifespan. Predictability of caregiver interactions is a critical feature of the environment, and unpredictability is associated with behavioral and cognitive deficits in offspring. In the maternal separation (MS) paradigm, dams are not able to engage with pups while they are separated, and maternal care is impacted even after pups and dams are reunited. Using a 3.5-h daily MS protocol in rats, the present study sought to compare diurnal patterns of maternal behavior, specifically predictability and fragmentation of care, between MS- and control-reared dams. Three observation periods were assessed (1430, 2330, and 0830) between postnatal days 8-9. Frequencies and durations of maternal behaviors were measured, including pup-directed licking/grooming, arched-back and passive nursing, and carrying pups, as well as non-pup-directed self-grooming, rearing, burrowing, nest-building, and eating. The frequency of nest entries was interpreted as a measure of fragmentation, and entropy rate was calculated from transitional probability matrices to measure predictability of maternal behavioral sequences. After dam-pup reunion, MS dams engaged in more bouts of nursing and licking/grooming and more nest entries, and behavioral sequences were less predictable than control dams. MS-induced enhancement of care is a replication of previous research, but unpredictability and fragmented care during MS is a novel finding, as these measures have not been previously reported for MS.

P408. An Exploration of Social Cognition in Pregnancy and Postpartum

There is little research that examines changes in social cognition with pregnancy and postpartum. This domain of cognition is particularly important as it may be related to maternal caregiving behaviors and the ability to interpret the infant’s mental states and anticipate their needs. The current study aimed to explore social cognitive performance in women during prenatal and postpartum periods.

Ontogeny of the Dyad: the Relationship Between Maternal and Offspring Neuroendocrine Function.

We review ontogeny of the maternal-offspring neuroendocrine relationship in human pregnancy. We present bidirectional genetic, physiological, and behavioral influences that enhance or disrupt HPA activity and its end product cortisol at the individual level and within the dyad. Consistent evidence supports that maternal mood and caregiving behavior are associated with maternal and offspring cortisol levels. Select studies support the buffering effects of antidepressant use and maternal positive affect on offspring cortisol. Growing research highlights evocative effects of fetalneuroendocrine activity, antenatalgene transfer, andinfantbehavioral distress and risk characteristics on maternal cortisol levels and dyadic attunement. There is potential to advance our understanding of the mother-offspring neuroendocrine relationship by consideration of other neuroactivesteroids in addition to cortisol, and to consider developmental timing and measurement source in study design. Future study should emphasize in what context or for whom neuroendocrine attunement is adaptive versus maladaptive for mother and child.

Families With Violence Exposure and the Intergenerational Transmission of Somatization.

Introduction:Adults who have histories of childhood trauma have been noted to display greater somatization, dissociative symptoms and affect dysregulation. What happens in the parent-child relationship when those traumatized children become parents? A potential link to somatization in the child has been suggested by several prior studies. Children who have early attachment disturbances had more physical complaints if their mothers displayed less maternal sensitivity during observed parent-child interactions. Yet, the intergenerational link between maternal and child somatization has not been sufficiently explored in a longitudinal study in order to understand the potential impact of maternal trauma history and related psychopathology on subsequent child somatization and psychopathology.MethodsThis paper examined prospective, longitudinal data of 64 mother-toddler dyads (mean age = 2.4 years, SD = 0.7) who were later studied when children had a mean age of 7 years. Mothers with and without histories of interpersonal violence (IPV; physical/sexual abuse and/or family violence exposure) were included. Mothers with IPV histories were oversampled. Linear and Poisson regression models were used to test the associations between maternal IPV-related post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with maternal somatization severity when children were toddlers, and between maternal somatization and maternal interactive behaviors with child somatization by maternal report and clinician-rated assessment at school-age.ResultsMaternal PTSD severity was significantly associated with increased maternal somatization severity (p = 0.031). Maternal somatization severity during the child's early childhood predicted both maternal report of child somatization (p = 0.011) as well as child thought problems (p = 0.007) when children were school-aged. No association was found between maternal somatization and child-reported psychopathology. The study did not find that maternal alexithymia, caregiving behaviors or child exposure to violence contributed significantly to the model examining the association between maternal and child somatization.ConclusionThe results are in line with the hypothesis of intergenerational transmission of somatization in the context of IPV and related maternal PTSD during formative early development. We interpret this as an expression of psychological distress from mother to child, as maternal trauma and pathology affect the caregiving environment and, thus, the parent–child relationship. The authors conclude with a discussion of implications for parent–infant and early childhood intervention.

Postpartum State, but Not Maternal Caregiving or Level of Anxiety, Increases Medial Prefrontal Cortex GAD65 and vGAT in Female Rats.

Upregulation of the inhibitory neurotransmitter, GABA, is involved in many of the behavioral differences between postpartum and nulliparous female rodents. This is evidenced by studies showing that pharmacological blockade of GABAergic activity impairs maternal caregiving and postpartum affective behaviors. However, the influence of motherhood on the capacity for GABA synthesis or release in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC; brain region involved in many social and affective behaviors) is not well-understood. Western blotting was used to compare postpartum and nulliparous rats in protein levels of the 65-kD isoform of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65; synthesizes most GABA released from terminals) and vesicular GABA transporter (vGAT; accumulates GABA into synaptic vesicles for release) in the mPFC. We found that postpartum mothers had higher GAD65 and vGAT compared to virgins, but such differences were not found between maternally sensitized and non-sensitized virgins, indicating that reproduction rather than just the display of maternal caregiving is required. To test whether GAD65 and vGAT levels in the mPFC were more specifically related to anxiety-related behavior within postpartum mothers, we selected 8 low-anxiety and 8 high-anxiety dams based on their time spent in the open arms of an elevated plus maze on postpartum day 7. There were no significant differences between the anxiety groups in either GAD65 or vGAT levels. These data further indicate that frontal cortical GABA is affected by female reproduction and more likely contributes to differences in the display of socioemotional behaviors across, but not within, female reproductive state.

Pregestational oxycodone exposure does not impact future maternal care or drug preference in the postpartum mouse.

Females are uniquely sensitive to drugs of abuse at specific points in their reproductive cycle. Females' endogenous opioid system contributes to both reward-related processes and maternally relevant physiological functions, yet less is known about how adolescent opioid exposure impacts females' future behavior, ranging from parental caregiving to opioid preference. The present study explores 2 questions: (a) are there sex differences in response to adolescent oxycodone exposure, spontaneous withdrawal, and oxycodone preference in adulthood, and (b) to what extent does this pregestational opioid exposure alter females' future maternal caregiving behavior? Female and male mice received 12d of oxycodone or saline injections during mid/late adolescence, and drug was then withheld. Some females were then mated and experienced a drug-free pregnancy. Following parturition, females' maternal behavior and motivation were assessed. All mice then underwent a place conditioning procedure to assess the incentive value of oxycodone during adulthood. Mice displayed similar behavioral responses to oxycodone (e.g., sensitization) and patterns of withdrawal behaviors, independent of sex. Mice showed strong group preferences for the oxycodone-paired chamber, and the strength of these preferences did not differ by sex or maternal status. Postpartum females' maternal behavior and motivation were also similar despite adolescent drug history. Together, results did not suggest overt sex differences in response to adolescent oxycodone exposure and that, in females, a range of motivated behaviors may be relatively resilient to such perturbations during adolescence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Lateral habenula neurocircuits mediate the maternal disruptive effect of maternal stress: A hypothesis.

Up to 20% of women experience stress-related disorders during the postpartum period; however, little is known about the specific neural circuitry by which maternal stress exerts its negative impacts on mental health and maternal caregiving behavior. Theoretically, such a circuitry should serve as an interface between the stress response system and maternal neural network, transmitting stress signals to the neural circuitry that mediates maternal behavior. In this paper, I propose that the lateral habenula (LHb) serves this interface function. Evidence shows that the LHb plays a key role in encoding stress-induced effects and in the pathophysiology of major depression and stress-related anxiety, and thus may play a role in maternal behavior as part of the maternal brain network. I hypothesize that maternal stress acts upon the LHb and two of its major downstream targets, i.e., ventral tegmental area (VTA) and dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), compromising the maternal care and contributing to postpartum mental disorders. This hypothesis makes three predictions: (1) maternal stress enhances LHb neuronal activity; (2) activation of DRN- and VTA-projecting neurons in the LHb mimics the detrimental effects of maternal stress on maternal behavior; and (3) suppression of DRN- and VTA-projecting neurons in the LHb attenuates the detrimental effects of maternal stress on maternal care in stressed mothers. Confirmation of this hypothesis is expected to enhance our understanding of the neurocircuit mechanisms mediating stress effects on maternal behavior.

Maternal Executive Functioning, Emotional Availability and Psychological Distress During Toddlerhood: A FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study.

Executive functioning (EF) is one of the building blocks in parental caregiving behavior, and contextual variables have been reported to moderate the link between EF and caregiving behavior. Although psychological distress due to various factors is prevalent during early parenthood and is negatively associated with adult EF, it is not known whether psychological distress influences the maternal EF/caregiving link. This study explored the association between maternal EF and caregiving behavior (more specifically, Emotional Availability/EA), and whether single and cumulative maternal psychological distress domains moderated the EF/EA association in a general population sample of 137 Finnish birth cohort mothers with 2.5-year-old children. EF was measured with a composite of five computerized Cogstate tasks, EA with the Emotional Availability Scales, and three psychological distress domains with self-report questionnaires (depression: EPDS, anxiety: SCL-90, insomnia: AIS). Better EF was significantly associated with more positive, sensitive caregiving, but this association was no longer significant when controlling for education level. Neither individual nor cumulative distress domains moderated the EF/EA association significantly, although the observed moderation effects were in the expected direction. These findings suggest that EF should be recognized alongside socioemotional factors as variables that are associated with parental caregiving behavior during toddlerhood. Furthermore, if the non-significant moderation results are replicated, they indicate that mothers in community samples are not at great risk for psychological distress that would compromise their capacity to utilize their EF while caring for their child. Further studies are needed to confirm these findings, as well as to examine these associations among fathers and in samples that have higher levels of chronic stressors. Studies with more diverse samples in terms of distress levels and EF performance would provide further insight into early childhood parenting and its risk factors.

Maternal prenatal mood problems and lower maternal emotional availability associated with lower quality of child's emotional availability and higher negative affect during still-face procedure.

Our aim was to study the effects of maternal perinatal mood and maternal emotional availability on child emotional availability and negative affect during the still-face procedure (SFP). The sample included 214 women who participated in a prospective study. We assessed maternal mood problems using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview and PRAQ questionnaire during pregnancy and using STAI and EPDS questionnaires during pregnancy and at 6months after delivery. Maternal and child emotional availability were studied using the Emotional Availability Scales during the SFP at 6months. We observed and quantified child's negative affect during SFP episodes. We found that mothers with maternal mood problems (anxiety and/or depression) during pregnancy, but not postnatally, showed less optimal maternal structuring during the SFP, and the children showed lower involvement and responsiveness during interactions with their mothers. Furthermore, lower maternal emotional availability was related to the child's higher negative affect during the SFP. Our findings underline the independent roles of both prenatal stress exposure and maternal caregiving behavior in a child's socioemotional development.

Maternal Alexithymic Traits Are Related to Lower Maternal Sensitivity and Higher Hostility in Maternal Caregiving Behavior—The FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study

Background: The quality of parental caregiving behavior with their child plays a key role in optimal mother–infant interaction and in supporting child adaptive development. Sensitive caregiving behavior, in turn, requires the ability to identify and understand emotions. Maternal alexithymia, with difficulties in identifying and describing feelings or emotions, as well as a concrete way of thinking, could potentially complicate the quality of caregiving. In this study, we aim to explore the possible association between maternal alexithymic traits and the quality of maternal caregiving behavior.Methods: The study sample consisted of 158 mother–infant dyads within the FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study population with an available report of maternal alexithymic traits at 6 months postpartum and observational data on maternal caregiving behavior at 8 months postpartum. Alexithymia was measured using the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) including three alexithymia dimensions—Difficulty Identifying Feelings, Difficulty Describing Feelings (DDF), and Externally Oriented Thinking (EOT). Maternal caregiving behavior was assessed using the Emotional Availability Scale and in this study, all four parent dimensions (Sensitivity, Structuring, Non-intrusiveness and Non-hostility) were included. Maternal depressive and anxiety symptoms at 6 months postpartum were controlled for as potential confounders. In addition, background factors of mother's age and gestational weeks at the time of child birth, maternal educational level, monthly income and parity, as well as relationship status and the gender of the baby were assessed.Results: Maternal TAS-20 total score correlated negatively with Sensitivity (r = −0.169, p = 0.034) and with non-intrusiveness (r = −0.182, p = 0.022). In addition, maternal DDF correlated negatively with Sensitivity (r = −0.168, p = 0.035) and EOT with Non-hostility (r = −0.159, p = 0.047). Furthermore, in regression analyses with controlling for the associated background factors, maternal total score of alexithymic traits (p = 0.034, η2p = 0.029) and higher DDF (p = 0.044, η2p = 0.026) remained significantly associated with lower Sensitivity and higher EOT remained significantly associated with lower Non-hostility (p = 0.030, η2p = 0.030).Conclusions: In this explorative study we found preliminary evidence for the hypothesis that higher maternal alexithymic traits associate with lower maternal sensitivity and more hostile maternal caregiving behavior. Further studies are needed to explore these hypotheses and to investigate their possible implications for child development.

From mothers to children and back: Bidirectional processes in the cross-generational transmission of anxiety from early childhood to early adolescence.

Maternal psychopathology and caregiving behavior are linked with child anxiety and these associations may be particularly salient when families face mass trauma together and members influence each other's symptomatology and resilience. Despite the well-known mother-to-child effects, less research addressed the longitudinal bidirectional effects of maternal and child's anxiety symptoms on each other. Mothers and children exposed to chronic war-related trauma from Sderot, Israel, and comparison group were followed at three time-points; Early childhood (T1:N = 232, MAge = 2.76 years), late childhood (T3:N = 176, MAge = 9.3 years), and early adolescence (T4:N = 110, MAge = 11.66 years). At each time-point maternal and child's anxiety symptoms were evaluated via questionnaires and maternal sensitivity was coded from videotaped observations of parent-child interactions. Bidirectional associations were examined using traditional cross-lagged panel model (CLPM) and CLPM with random intercepts (RI-CLPM). Trauma-exposed mothers and children exhibited more anxiety symptoms and lower maternal sensitivity. Cross-lagged panel models revealed cross-time bidirectional associations between maternal anxiety and child anxiety from early to late childhood. Child anxiety at each time-point predicted maternal anxiety and maternal sensitivity at the next stage; however, maternal sensitivity did not show longitudinal associations with child anxiety, highlighting children's role in shaping caregiving. Findings demonstrate bidirectional cross-generational influences of mother and child on each other's anxiety in contexts of trauma and pinpoint early childhood as a sensitive period for such mutual influences. Children's increased anxiety following trauma appears to be further exacerbated via its impact on increasing maternal anxiety and compromising sensitive caregiving, underscoring the potential benefits of parental and mother-child interventions for trauma-exposed populations.

Parenting and addictions: Current insights from human neuroscience.

A growing body of human research has documented associations between the maternal brain and maternal substance use and addictions. This neuroscience-informed approach affords the opportunity to unpack potential neurobiological mechanisms that may underscore challenges in maternal caregiving behavior among mothers with addictions and provide new directions for parenting interventions. Consistent with theoretical models of parenting and addictions, five studies evidence both hypo- and hyper-reactivity to infant affective cues across neuroimaging methods and tasks that incorporate both infant face and cry stimuli. Three structural and resting-state brain studies as a function of maternal substance use are also reported. While human neuroimaging research converges in showing that maternal substance use is associated with differential reactivity to infant affective cues, further multi-level/multi-modal, longitudinal, and dimensional research is critically needed to advance this area of investigation.

Supportive Maternal and Paternal Caregiving and the Children's Emerging Effortful Control Abilities.

Supportive maternal and paternal caregiving have been found to be associated with children's effortful control abilities. However, many studies did not assess both maternal and paternal parenting in the same analytic model, making it difficult to parse out the unique contributions of mothers versus fathers. Thus, we aimed to simultaneously assess the role of parent gender in associations between observations of supportive caregiving in the preschool years and observations of children's effortful control abilities in the early school-age years. At approximately age 3, children (N = 113) participated in videotaped father-child and mother-child interactions, as well as a battery of effortful control tasks. At approximately age 6, children participated in another battery of effortful control tasks. Covariates included parental education, child age, child preschool-age effortful control, and child gender. Structural equation modeling revealed that maternal and paternal supportive caregiving behaviors in the preschool years were independently associated with children's school-age effortful control abilities. In sum, we found that supportive caregiving in the preschool years was associated with children's early school-age effortful control abilities, regardless of parent gender. Findings have implications for the development of interventions aimed at improving children's effortful control abilities through improvements in both paternal and maternal parenting.