Maternal Attendance Research Articles

Variation in maternal provisioning by lactating Antarctic fur seals ( Arctocephalus gazella ): response to experimental manipulation in pup demand

An experiment involving the supplementary feeding of pups was conducted on Antarctic fur seals to investigate the factors influencing maternal foraging-attendance cycles and the differential use of nutritional resources for growth, maintenance and storage by pups. For 40% of the lactation period, male pups were given a supplement mimicking the chemical composition of Antarctic fur seal milk at a dose equivalent to 35% of the normal mass-specific milk energy intake for the species. Milk consumption, body composition and growth rates were monitored during and after the supplementary feeding period and maternal foraging-attendance cycles were monitored throughout lactation. During the supplementary feeding period, treatment pups (n=8) grew 32% faster and deposited greater adipose tissue stores than controls (n=8) but consumed the same amount of maternal-delivered milk. When supplementary feeding was stopped (timed to coincide with peak maternal milk yield in this species), treatment pups lost mass whereas control group pups continued to grow. Treatment pups weaned at a younger age (109 days) than control pups (116 days) but at the same mass (13 kg). Maternal attendance durations did not differ between the treatment and control groups throughout lactation. However, mothers of treatment pups had significantly shorter foraging trip durations (3.74 days) than mothers of control pups (4.74 days) during the period of supplementary feeding (there were no significant differences throughout the rest of lactation). These findings are in accordance with predictions of a marginal-value model of fur seal lactation behaviour.

Grey seal maternal attendance patterns are affected by water availability on North Rona, Scotland

Previous studies on grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) have shown that pools of water influence female distribution within inland breeding colonies. This study reveals that the availability of pools also affects maternal attendance patterns and may have implications for breeding success. An atypical dry period at the start of the 1998 breeding season on North Rona, Scotland, followed by a normal wet period, provided a natural experiment that allowed us to examine female behaviour in relation to the availability of pools. During the dry period, lactating grey seals (i) travelled long distances to gain access to water; (ii) had significantly greater rates of locomotion towards water and resulting from interactions between conspecifics; and (iii) spent significantly less time close to their pups. Long-distance locomotion and a reduction in time spent with the pup often lead to permanent mother-pup separation, resulting in starvation of the pup. However, the immediate need to gain access to water for thermoregulation or maintenance of a positive water balance outweighed the potential costs of reproductive failure, emphasising the importance of water for lactating grey seals even during the relatively cold and damp breeding season in the U.K.

Grey seal maternal attendance patterns are affected by water availability on North Rona, Scotland

Previous studies on grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) have shown that pools of water influence female distribution within inland breeding colonies. This study reveals that the availability of pools a...

Growth in pups of the subantarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus tropicalis) on Amsterdam Island

AbstractGrowth in body mass in pups of the subantarctic fur seal Arctocephalus tropicalis was studied at Amsterdam Island, southern Indian Ocean during the rearing period between December 1995 and August 1996. We examined the change in the rates of mass gain and mass loss with pup age to explain the overall change in mass throughout the rearing period, when mothers alternate foraging trips at sea and attendance periods ashore. In the absence of their mothers, pups fast and lose mass. During the maternal attendance period ashore pups suck and gain mass. There was no significant difference in the rate of growth in mass between male and female pups. The rate of loss in mass during a fasting event was positively related to the initial body mass but negatively related to the age and duration of the fast of the pup. The rate of mass loss was best related to pup age by a quadratic relationship. The rate of mass loss increased until pups were 120 days old and then decreased until the end of the study period. The rate of gain in mass following a maternal foraging trip was positively related to the initial pup mass but negatively related to the foraging trip duration, and we found that the rate of mass gain decreased linearly with the age of the pup. The concomitant decrease in the rate of mass loss and mass gain for pups > 120 days old allowed pups to maintain a positive growth until they were 220 days old. After 220 days of age the rate of mass loss exceeded the rate of mass gain and the pups start to lose mass until weaning.

MATERNAL CARE IN THE SUBANTARCTIC FUR SEALS ON AMSTERDAM ISLAND

This paper reports the first study of maternal input and care from birth to weaning in a fur seal with a long pup-rearing period: the subantarctic fur seal Arctocephalus tropicalis breeding on the temperate Amsterdam Island, Indian Ocean. The protracted weaning period provided the opportunity for examination of maternal care in relation to seasonal changes in the requirements of the mother–pup pair and environmental conditions. During the reproductive season 1995–1996, maternal care was investigated in terms of provisioning (maternal attendance) pattern while diving effort was investigated using time depth recorders in summer and winter. Maternal input was calculated in terms of the absolute rate of pup mass gain and, ultimately, pup growth rate and pup body mass at weaning. Lactating subantarctic fur seals perform one of the longest attendance cycles described in fur seals, spending on average 11–23 d at sea from summer to winter. The time mothers spend ashore suckling their pup is also long (∼4 d) but remains constant throughout the year. Throughout the year, maternal input should be described as follows: mothers spending a long time at sea store a large amount of body reserves that provide them a good body condition. Consequently, they spend a long time ashore to transfer their body reserves to their pups. However, mothers spending short attendance periods increase the mass transfer efficiency, probably by decreasing their metabolic overhead. In summer, maternal care was mostly controlled by pup traits: maternal absences appeared to be controlled by pup fasting ability, while maternal input was controlled by pup ingestion ability, i.e., pup body size and the time the pup was suckling. In fall, pups were no longer limited in milk ingestion, and maternal input was mostly controlled by maternal traits (e.g., body length and experience). In winter, maternal input decreased as the pup became older despite an increase in maternal diving effort. We propose that, in winter, maternal requirements increase, probably in response to increasing costs of gestation and because of a decrease in food resource availability. Pups whose mother performed short and regular foraging trips grew faster and were heavier at weaning than other pups. This is discussed in term of pup fasting endurance and maternal experience. Finally, we found a window of foraging trip durations that maximizes the net rate of energy acquisition of the pup, suggesting that in subantarctic fur seals there may not exist one optimal maternal attendance pattern, but a range of patterns promoting the same maternal fitness.

The Relationship of Maternal HIV Status and Home Variables to Academic Performance of African American Children

The incidence of HIV/AIDS continues to rise among impoverished, urban, African American women, yet the children of these women have been overlooked in the literature. The primary aim of this study was to determine the relationship of maternal HIV status to child academic performance. In addition, we examined whether family variables (e.g., maternal education, parenting) related to academic performance similarly or differently in families in which mothers were and were not infected. Finally, the roles of stage of maternal HIV infection and school attendance in the relation between maternal HIV status and child academic performance were examined. Participants included two groups: 85 African American, HIV-infected women and their noninfected children, and 148 noninfected African American women and their children. Maternal HIV status predicted children's grades, and the relation between family variables and child academic performance was similar in the infected and noninfected samples. School attendance appeared to be a mechanism that may explain the relationship between maternal HIV status and child academic performance.

Sex differences in mass loss rate and growth efficiency in Antarctic fur seal ( Arctocephalus gazella ) pups at Macquarie Island

We investigated the relationship between the mass gained by a pup during a period of maternal attendance (as an index of milk intake) and the duration of the preceding foraging trip in relation to the mass-specific rate of mass loss during fasting periods and the growth rate of Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella) pups at Macquarie Island. We found that (1) serially weighed male pups grew significantly faster than females pups and that (2) fasting female pups lost mass at a significantly higher rate (2.55% day−1) than male pups (2.12% day−1) of the same mass; (3) during periods of maternal attendance, there were no intersexual differences in the amount of mass gained by pups of the same size, hence (4) female pups required a higher daily mass gain to grow at the same rate as male pups. Our results show that intersexual differences in growth rate may be accounted for by intersexual differences in mass-specific rate of mass loss, because females lost 0.42% more of their total mass per day (i.e. 4.2 g kg−1 day−1) compared with male pups of the same body mass. Despite intersexual differences in growth rates, our results indicate equality of maternal expenditure between the sexes. Intersexual differences in the rate of mass loss may be due to differences in the metabolic rate, activity level and/or body composition of male and female pups.

Relationship between maternal church attendance and adolescent mental health and social functioning.

This study compared maternal attendance at religious services with standard demographic characteristics such as race, type of religion, and mother's education in terms of their relative association with the behavioral and social functioning of young adolescents. The Child Health and Illness Profile--Adolescent Edition and the Children's Depression Inventory were used to screen 445 youths age 11 through 13 who were randomly selected from two public middle schools in Baltimore. Based on the findings, the investigators selected a sample of 143 youths in which approximately two-thirds were at risk of having a psychiatric disorder and the remaining third were unlikely to have a psychiatric disorder. The youths and their mothers were interviewed at home to determine the mothers' frequency of participation in religious services and the youths' self-reported health and mental health status and social role functioning. Youths whose mothers attended religious services at least once a week had greater overall satisfaction with their lives, more involvement with their families, and better skills in solving health-related problems and felt greater support from friends compared with youths whose mothers had lower levels of participation in religious services. Maternal attendance at religious services had a strong association with the youths' outcome in overall satisfaction with health and perceived social support from friends, although family income was the strongest predictor of five other aspects of functioning, including academic performance. Frequent maternal participation in religious services was associated with healthy functioning and well-being in this sample of young adolescents. This association is as important as or more important than associations involving other traditional demographic variables, with the exception of family income.

Utilization and satisfaction with prenatal care services.

This study was conducted in St. Petersburg, Russia, under the auspices of the World Health Organization, Healthy Cities Project, and the St. Petersburg Healthy City Project. The purpose of this study was to investigate the predict use of prenatal care services (utilization) and satisfaction with the services. A high maternal mortality rate and low attendance at prenatal clinics brought this health care issue to the forefront of the St. Petersburg Healthy City Project agenda. Aday and Andersen's conceptual model was used to investigate use of and satisfaction with prenatal care services. Several characteristics of pregnant women were found to influence early use of prenatal care services and women's level of satisfaction. Need had no influence in explaining when women started prenatal care or satisfaction with the services. Lastly, there was no relationship between early use of prenatal care services and women's level of satisfaction with the services.

Maternal attendance behaviour of sympatrically breeding Antarctic and subantarctic fur seals, Arctocephalus spp., at Macquarie Island

Maternal attendance behaviour was studied in Antarctic (Arctocephalus gazella) and subantarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus tropicalis) which breed sympatrically at subantarctic Macquarie Island. Data on attendance were obtained using telemetric methods. Both species undertook two types of foraging trips: overnight foraging trips which were of less than 1 day duration and occurred exclusively overnight, and extended foraging trips which lasted longer than 1 day. The mean duration of overnight foraging trips was 0.43 and 0.39 days, while the duration of extended foraging trips was 3.6 and 3.8 days in A. gazella and A. tropicalis, respectively. The duration of overnight and extended foraging trips did not differ significantly between species. Two types of shore attendance bouts that differed in duration were also observed in these species. Short attendance bouts lasted less than 0.9 days, while long attendance bouts lasted longer than 0.9 days. Short attendance bouts lasted 0.4 and 0.5 days, while long attendance bouts lasted 1.6 and 1.7 days in A. gazella and A. tropicalis, respectively, and did not differ significantly between species. The most significant differences between the attendance behaviour of both species was in the percentage of foraging time allocated to overnight foraging trips (15% and 25% in A. gazella and A. tropicalis, respectively), and the percentage of time spent ashore (30% and 38% in A. gazella and A. tropicalis, respectively). The nearness of pelagic waters to Macquarie Island is considered to be the main reason that lactating females are able to undertake overnight foraging trips. These trips may be used by females as a means of optimising the costs of fasting and nursing ashore. Females may be able to save energy by only nursing pups when milk transfer efficiencies are high, and reduce the time and energy costs of fasting ashore when milk transfer efficiency is low. Of the female A. gazella that still carried transmitters at the end of lactation, 83% continued regular attendance for between 21 and 150 days post-lactation (when data collection ceased). Overwintering of A. gazella females at breeding sites has not been previously reported in other populations.

Perceived maternal religious value similarity and church attendance: their potential stress response and psychological effects

Research has suggested that parental church attendance/values and similarity to parental religious values may affect cardiovascular health. This project compared adult groups that had religious values either similar or dissimilar to their mothers' or had mothers who attended places of worship frequently vs infrequently. Group differences were found in T-helper cell percent, T-suppressor cell percent, systolic blood pressure, VLDL toxicity-preventing activity, age, anger temperament, education, number of relatives with ulcers and spontaneous crying. Results generally supported the hypothesis that individuals who had religious values similar to their mothers' or whose mothers attended worship regularly had indices suggestive of less cardiovascular risk than the comparison groups. This article is a preliminary report meant to encourage research with larger and better defined groups. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Knowledge, perceptions and behaviour of mothers toward intestinal helminths in Upper Egypt: implications for control.

Operational research was conducted in Qena Governorate, Upper Egypt, to gather the information needed to design an integrated control programme for intestinal helminths in the area. To this aim, qualitative and quantitative techniques were used on a sample representative of the entire governorate. Mothers were questioned about their knowledge and perception of intestinal helminths, their hygienic habits and health-seeking behaviour. At the same time, a coprological survey was conducted on all the children 2 to 12 years of age living in the selected households (n = 2657) to provide baseline data on the prevalence of infection with these parasites. The survey results showed that intestinal helminth infections were more prevalent in rural areas and in three of the 12 Governorate districts. Almost all the respondents considered worms harmful and were aware of the need for treatment. More than adequate knowledge was present on ways to prevent infection. Good hygienic practices were associated with a low prevalence of infection in the household. Practical recommendations were formulated to design a helminth control programme tailored to the local situation and to prioritize allocation of resources. Passive case detection appeared to be appropriate to the level of infection in Qena (< 15%). The intervention should target areas and districts where prevalence of infection was higher, and all children below 12 years of age. Health education, besides encouraging mothers to refer their children to the health units for treatment, should focus on improving hygienic behaviour. While schools might be the best channel to contact children, the use of informal channels of communication, such as television, should be promoted to reach the mostly illiterate mothers. The research highlights the importance of gathering information on mothers' perceptions and behaviour in the design and implementation of a community-based intestinal helminths control programme.

THE INFLUENCE OF NEST TEMPERATURES AND MATERNAL BROODING ON HATCHLING PHENOTYPES IN WATER PYTHONS

Previous work on phenotypic plasticity in hatchling reptiles has dealt almost exclusively with lizards and turtles from temperate zone habitats, in taxa where the only maternal control over incubation regimes is exerted via nest site selection. In contrast, water pythons (Liasis fuscus) in northern Australia are tropical snakes that show facultative maternal brooding, with shivering thermogenesis to warm the clutch. Thus, incubation temperatures of this species are influenced both by nest site selection and by maternal care. We experimentally simulated three thermal regimes typical of different types of natural nests in our study population. These were (1) hot, stable temperatures typical of nests laid in the burrows of varanid lizards (constant 32°C); (2) lower and more variable temperatures typical of nests laid inside tree root boles, either with maternal attendance (diel range 27.1°–32.9°C); or (3) in root boles but without maternal attendance (24.3°–32.9°C). We incubated 187 eggs from 15 clutches obtained from field-caught gravid pythons, using a split-clutch design to quantify influences on morphology (offspring size and shape), locomotor performance (swimming ability), and behavior (escape tactics, propensity to strike, willingness to feed in captivity). The thermal regime during incubation strongly affected incubation periods, body sizes, body shapes (mass and tail length relative to snout–vent length), initial growth rates, escape behavior, and willingness to feed. We also detected strong maternal effects on all of these traits, and interactions between maternal effects and incubation regimes. Thus, a female python’s “decisions” as to where she lays her eggs and whether she remains and broods them through development have major consequences for the phenotypes of her offspring.

Variation in maternal attendance patterns and pup behaviour in a declining population of Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus)

Maternal attendance patterns of lactating female Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) and the activity budgets of pups on Año Nuevo Island, California, were compared between the 1973 and 1992 breeding seasons to investigate temporal changes in behaviour that may be associated with population decline. Females were absent from the breeding area longer in 1992, which may reflect increased foraging effort. Pups also spent significantly less time sucking and more time swimming in 1992. Suckling time is correlated with milk intake in some otariid species, thus the decreased amount of time 1992 pups spent sucking could reflect a reduction in the total volume of milk produced by females. Pups in 1992 are likely to have spent more time swimming than pups in 1973 because high tide covered a greater proportion of the study site in 1992 than in 1973. An increase in time females spent at sea and a decrease in time pups spent sucking are consistent with behavioural changes associated with reduced prey availability.

Pup Growth and Maternal Care in New Zealand Fur Seals, Arctocephalus forsteri, at Maatsuyker Island, Tasmania

The growth, maternal attendance and sucking behaviour of 11 New Zealand fur seal pups, Arctocephalus forsteri, on Maatsuyker Island, Tasmania, were studied during the first six months of lactation. Early growth rates (0–50 days) ranged from 78 to 138 g day-1 and were amongst the highest recorded for any fur seal. Male pups from Maatsuyker Island in 1993 grew at double the rate reported from Kangaroo Island in 1989 and 1990. Growth of pups was influenced by the attendance behaviour of mothers. Mothers that spent relatively long periods at sea had pups that grew more slowly. The proportion of time spent sucking by pups decreased during the attendance period of mothers. Distinct interannual variability was also determined for body masses of pups weighed in March in five successive years, 1990–94, with mean body mass differing by up to 20% between years.

Maternal Religiosity, Adolescent Social Bonding, and Adolescent Alcohol Use

This study tested two hypotheses: (a) that maternal religiosity would predict adolescent alcohol use and (b) that the relation between maternal religiosity and adolescent alcohol use would be mediated by the three Hirschi control theory elements (attachment, belief in conventional rules, and commitment to conventional activities). Panel data were used from a probability sample of 1,553 adolescents who were 12 through 14 years of age. Maternal religiosity was predictive negatively of alcohol use by adolescents. Maternal religious attendance was more predictive than was maternal religious importance. The association between maternal religiosity and adolescent alcohol use was not explained by race, gender, or age of the adolescent; maternal education, maternal religious denomination, or maternal cigarette smoking status; family structure; or the number of friends who smoke cigarettes; or by the elements of the Hirschi control theory. It appears that maternal religiosity had an effect on adolescent alcohol use through mechanisms other than those tested in the study.

Milk consumption and growth efficiency in Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella) pups

The body composition, milk consumption, and growth efficiency of Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella) pups were measured over three consecutive lactation periods (1990–1992) at Bird Island, South Georgia. The body composition of pups differed between the sexes; whereas for any given age females were lighter than males, they had proportionately higher body lipid reserves than males. Milk consumption was determined on 388 occasions in 177 pups. Mean estimates of milk consumption ranged from 2.5 to 3.2 kg (42–53 MJ) during the 6-day perinatal period and from 2.9 to 3.6 kg (49–68 MJ) during the 1- to 2-day maternal attendance periods (feeding bouts). There were no differences in milk consumption between the sexes in any year. Both per-bout and per-day milk consumption increased steadily with age before decreasing significantly in the last 30–40 days of lactation. Per-bout milk consumption was positively related to the duration of the maternal foraging trip and attendance cycle, and both per-bout and per-day milk consumption were related to pup mass. Pups of both sexes consume the same amount of milk, but males direct more of their milk consumption into lean tissue growth than females, which accumulate greater adipose stores. Therefore, mass and mass changes may not be appropriate parameters for investigating differential maternal investment between the sexes in otariid pups.

Ineffective Maternal Care of a Subsocial Bug against a Nymphal Parasitoid: a Possible Consequence of Specialization to Predators

AbstractIn the subsocial bug Elasmucha putoni, females lay egg masses on leaves of fruit‐bearing wild mulberry trees. Parent females invariably remained straddling their offspring until the offspring moulted to the second instar on natal leaves. Thereafter, the females usually settled on the stem of shoots which harboured second‐or‐later‐instar nymphs feeding on fruit or aggregating on leaves, and faced toward the base of the shoot. To evaluate the effectiveness of maternal attendance on parasitism of nymphs by a braconid wasp, I divided the boughs of each mulberry tree into two experimental groups: a single bough which was isolated from the others by Tanglefoot treatments and on which guarding females were removed from broods before the second instar, and other boughs on which broods were left intact as controls. The experiments showed that nymphal parasitism was not affected by the presence of females. The position and orientation of females attending second‐or‐later‐instar nymphs is probably effective for detecting predators approaching the nymphs by walking along the stem; however, this posture may prevent the females from detecting parasitoids, which fly and land directly on plant parts close to the nymphs. The ineffectiveness of the females in providing defence against the parasitoid is possibly associated with a specialization of the attending posture to pedestrian predators: a parental defensive behaviour specific to these predators may make the offspring more vulnerable to the parasitoid.

Neonate Aggregations and Maternal Attendance of Young in the Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake, Crotalus adamanteus

Neonate Aggregations and Maternal Attendance of Young in the Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake, Crotalus adamanteus

Risk Factors of Mental Retardation in Children Attending an Educationally Subnormal/Mental School in Dammam, Saudi Arabia

The objective of this case control study was no identify the possible associated risk factors of mild mental retardation in children. Sixty-nine parents of mildly mentally retarded (MR group) male children and a similar number of matched parents of normal male children (control) were interviewed using a questionnaire. The MR group was found to belong to the middle and the lower socioeconomic classes. Histories of maternal smoking, skin rash, fever, and less attendance to antenatal clinics during pregnancy were reported significantly more by mothers of the MR group (P = 0.027, 0.008, 0.027 and 0.0018, respectively). Furthermore, these mothers reported more collective occurrence of newborn jaundice, fever, convulsions, incubator need, and head trauma (P = 0.004). More consanguineous marriages were found in the control group (73.9%) as compared to the MR group (59.4%) (P = 0.056). A family history of mental retardation was, however, more in the latter group compared to the former group (P=0.027). The risk of having another mentally retarded member in the family was found to be a higher if the familial degree of another closeness to the mentally retarded member was more. Well planned health education programs, genetic counseling units, and sufficient antenatal and neonatal services are of prime importance.