Material Flow Research Articles

Characterization of material flow behavior in friction stir welded AA2014 aluminum alloy joints

Abstract Steel rivets serve as a substitute material for connecting similar and dissimilar materials within the structural fabrication industries. However, the use of steel rivets can result in a significant increase in the structure’s weight and may trigger corrosion at the interface due to galvanic coupling. Combining dissimilar alloys through the fusion welding process poses numerous challenges for manufacturers and designers. A solid-state welding technique called friction stir welding (FSW) has been developed. FSW can effectively join materials without reaching their melting points, relying on severe plastic deformation and recrystallization to form a welded joint. The proper selection of the tool and process parameters is essential for achieving a sound weld. The findings of this study indicate that plastic deformation, material flow, and recrystallization play pivotal roles in the strength of the joint. This implies that FSW represents an ideal joining process for high-strength alloys and serves as a viable alternative to replace permanent joints like rivets.

Exploring microstructure evolution and machine-learning methods based on SCAT-CIWOA-BP-DMM theory during hot deformation of 56Ni–32Ti–12Hf alloy

Hot compression simulation tests were carried out on a 56Ni–32Ti–12Hf alloy at temperatures ranging from 800 to 1000 °C and strain rates ranging from 0.001 to 1 s−1. The study aimed to explore the hot deformation behavior and microstructure evolution mechanism of the alloy. Two flow stress prediction models were developed: a strain-compensated Arrhenius constitutive (SCAT) model based on phenomenology and a chaotic mapping adaptive inertia weight whale optimization algorithm-optimized back propagation neural network (CIWOA-BPNN) model based on machine learning. In comparison to the SCAT model, the CIWOA-BPNN model demonstrates higher prediction accuracy, improved error correlation coefficient, decreased average relative error, and lower root mean square error and mean absolute error. The hot processing map of the 56Ni–32Ti–12Hf alloy was developed using dynamic material modeling (DMM) theory and flow stress data predicted by the CIWOA-BPNN model. The optimal hot processing range was found to be between temperatures of 875–975 °C and strain rates of 0.001–1 s−1. The study found that within the optimal processing interval, the softening mechanisms observed were discontinuous dynamic recrystallization (DDRX) and continuous dynamic recrystallization (CDRX). An increase in power dissipation efficiency (η) led to an increase in the dynamic recrystallization (DRX) fraction from 27.1 % to 41.9 %, while the substructure fraction decreased from 34.2 % to 19.8 %. The decrease in the number of dislocations around the DDRX grains further validated the accuracy of the identified optimum machining interval in this research.

The change of material flows and environmental impacts along with future upgrading scenarios of NCM battery in China

The battery electric vehicle (BEV) industry, commanding over half of the global market share in China, has garnered significant attention in response to escalating concerns about climate change. NCM (LiNixCoyMnzO2) batteries, prized for their high energy density, are pivotal in this industry. However, their production relies on critical metals, posing environmental challenges. Recycling processes aim to address this issue by recovering critical metals from end-of-life batteries. The industry is updating from NCM 111 to NCM 811 batteries to enhance energy density and reduce costs, but the key factors influencing the material flows and environmental impacts remain uncertain. This paper aims to identify the key factors contributing to the potential differences in material flows and environmental impacts introduced by the NCM battery upgrading in China. Following the new energy vehicle sales projections in China until 2035, a dynamic material flow analysis was employed to calculate material demands, recovered amounts, and substitution rates for various upgrading scenarios. The study reveals that the majority of retired batteries until 2035 were sold between 2022 and 2029. Material substitution rates prove to be more sensitive to the upgrading scenario than the lifetime and growth rate of BEVs. Faster NCM 811 penetration results in over 2.5 times more saved cobalt demand compared to additional nickel demand. A life cycle assessment of NCM batteries reveals a 39% lower global warming impact for NCM 811 compared to NCM 111, highlighting environmental benefits from increased energy density and reduced cobalt consumption. The energy density improvement contributed 85%, while the alteration in material composition contributed 15% to the global warming reduction in NCM 811. Recycling emerges as a crucial strategy in mitigating environmental impacts across all categories, particularly addressing eutrophication, previously deemed challenging due to the difficulty in recovering Li2CO3.

Assigning strategic COD flow to enhance denitrification coupled with anaerobic digestion and anammox for systematic upgradation of advanced nitrogen removal from food waste digestate

Anammox is a low-carbon and efficient technology for treating high-strength ammonium in food waste digestate (FWD). However, achieving superior low-nitrogen effluent levels to meet strict discharge standards remains challenging. This study proposes an anammox-based process that integrates simultaneous denitrification and methanogenesis (SDM), partial nitrification (PN), and simultaneous anammox and denitrification (SAD) to realize advanced nitrogen removal from FWD by strategically utilizing influent organic matter. The SAD process achieved an inorganic nitrogen removal efficiency of 94.0 %, with the anammox reaction contributing 96.0 %. Residual nitrate in the SAD effluent was recirculated into SDM, maintaining a removal efficiency of 95 %–97 %. Profiling wastewater and material flows in the integrated process showed a 97.2 % nitrogen removal efficiency, with effluent nitrogen levels meeting discharge standards (<70 mg/L for municipal sewer systems). 3D-fluorescence analysis indicated that quasi-humic acid was effectively removed through SDM. Soluble microbial by-products of FWD served as carbon source for the denitrifying bacteria in SAD. Controlling influent bypass flow and effluent recirculation allowed for strategic allocation of chemical oxygen demand (COD) flow, achieving a total removal efficiency of 71.8 %. SDM removed 45.8 % COD, followed by PN at 13.4 % and SAD at 12.6 %. Compared with those of conventional nitrification and denitrification process, the economic cost, greenhouse gas emission, and total environmental impact of this integrated process were reduced by 85.8 %, 35.8 %, and 84.1 %, respectively. This study provides new insights into the application of anammox-based process for attaining advanced nitrogen removal while minimizing environmental impact.

A damage localization technique using wave front shapes in composite laminates without knowing the velocity profile

Composite laminates are widely used in various fields, but their structures are prone to cracks and damage. Due to the difference in angles of the instantaneous direction of the wave front propagation and the direction of the energy flow in an anisotropic material, the use of Lamb waves for damage localization in composite laminates is a challenging task. Establishing the wave front shape equation can overcome the difficulty of damage localization caused by anisotropy, but this usually requires a priori knowledge of the acoustic velocity distribution of the laminates, which is not convenient for efficient damage localization. In this paper, a damage localization method based on wave front shapes for composite laminates without any knowledge of the velocity profile is presented. Numerical simulation and experimental results show that the proposed method works. This method shows good damage localization accuracy and has broad application prospects in non-destructive testing for plate structures with strong anisotropy.

ASME Nondestructive Examination (ANDE) Designated Test Organizations (DTOs)

Control of Nondestructive Examination (NDE) and Quality Control (QC) practical examinations are essential for an ANDE Designated Test Organization (DTO). This presentation describes the infrastructure, security, quality system, and practical demonstration requirements as part of the application to be recognized as an ANDE DTO. A key presentation component is the explanation of sourcing, validation, security, and control of the practical demonstration specimens. Acquisition of the practical demonstration specimens, the examination process steps, and applicant administration are key to the ANDE DTO examination designation. Practical demonstration infrastructure includes the physical location, ANDE material and applicant traffic flow, and the sequence of operations for personal practical demonstrations. Learn more about the details of ANDE Certification Body (CB) preparation to meet the rigorous quality system requirements. An ANDE DTO quality system must meet the quality requirements based on ISO 17024 quality system conformance. Other quality system requirements, dependent on regulatory and statutory criteria such as nuclear pressure vessel codes compared to non-nuclear pressure vessel codes can impact the designation of the DTO. This presentation includes an overview of how the tracking of the applicant, specific NDE/QC methods, test categorization, and the test specimens are organized. Reference to the ASME Nondestructive Examination (ANDE) standard will be included as part of this presentation.

Green and Sustainable Rare Earth Element Recycling and Reuse from End-of-Life Permanent Magnets

Rare earth elements (REEs) are key materials for the development of renewable energy devices such as high-power magnets for wind turbines, electric vehicles, or fuel cells for hydrogen generation, aiming to fulfill the objectives of the European Green Deal for a carbon-neutral economy. The increased demand for REEs and their criticality strongly require the improvement of their extraction technologies from primary resources and the enhancement of their circularity reuse rate from secondary resources. The aim of this paper is to focus attention on the possibilities offered by emerging methods such as microwave (MW) treatment and mechanochemistry in waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) processing and the reuse of end-of-life (EoL) magnets, directed toward the tailoring of rational REE material flows. The discussed investigation examples explore some key features of conventional and new methods for efficient, environmentally friendly, and scalable REE extraction and reuse, with the final goal of producing recycled NdFeB powders, with potential use in the redesign and fabrication of new REE-based magnets.

Probabilistic material flow analysis of released nano titanium dioxide in Mexico

Engineered Nanomaterials (ENMs) or products containing ENMs, known as nano-enabled products are commercialized globally by a large number of companies. Concern about the potential risks and negative impacts of releasing ENMs into the environment is under investigation. For this reason, methodologies to estimate the probable mass concentrations of ENMs released in different regions of the world have been developed. As a first attempt to estimate the probable mass flows of nanosized titanium dioxide (nano-TiO2) released in Mexico, we developed a Probabilistic Material Flow Analysis (PMFA) for 2015.The model describes probabilistic mass flows of released nano-TiO2 during the life cycle of sunscreens, coatings, ceramic, and other nano-enabled products, including the flows through the solid waste and wastewater management systems, as well as the transfer of nano-TiO2 to three environmental compartments (atmosphere, topsoil, and surface water). The PMFA incorporates the uncertainty related to the input data. We observed that the most significant nano-TiO2 flows occur to the surface water, landfill, and soil compartments, targeted as the main “hot-spots”, where living organisms could be more exposed to this material. Further improvements in the model are needed due to some data gaps at some life cycle stages, for instance, solid waste management and reused wastewater manipulation for irrigation purposes. Finally, the model developed in this study can be adjusted to assess other ENM releases and can be beneficial for further investigation in fate modeling and environmental risk assessment.

Multi-criteria analysis of strategies towards sustainable recycling of phosphorus from sewage sludge in Austria

To promote optimal phosphorus (P) recovery from municipal wastewater and sewage sludge with viable legal instruments, it is imperative to understand the regional and national consequences of different legal requirements for recycling. In this study we develop a scenario-based analysis to assess the environmental and economic impact of different national P recovery strategies in the context of a detailed representation of the existing Austrian wastewater infrastructure. This assessment combines material flow analysis, life cycle assessment and life cycle costing and includes the indicators P recycling rate, P utilization degree, heavy metal removal rate, share of heavy metals’ content in wastewater redirected to agricultural soils, global warming potential, cumulated energy demand, terrestrial acidification potential, volume of freight transport and annual costs. The following main conclusions can be drawn. P recovery from ash shows the highest potential regarding the utilization of P from wastewater. A high P utilization from wastewater should rely on recovery technologies that decontaminate products, otherwise pollutant loads to agricultural soils might increase. P recovery to the extent of 60–85 % of P in WWTPs influent can be achieved by savings/costs of −0.8 to +4.7 EUR inhabitant−1 yr−1 in addition to current cost of the wastewater treatment/sludge disposal system. Key factors to be considered for costs are the choice of recovery process, revenues from products, and the use of existing incineration infrastructure. P recovery can lead to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in Austria if nitrous oxide emissions from sludge incineration are limited and efficient heat utilization strategies are implemented. There is a trade-off in terms of environmental and economic costs in choosing a more centralized or decentralized mono-incineration strategy.

Non-negligible environmental risks of typical hazardous trace elements in wastes from Chinese coal-fired industrial boilers

Coal-fired industrial boilers (CFIBs) that provide heat for industrial production operate to produce large quantities of wastes containing hazardous trace elements (HTEs), threatening the quality of the environment. Based on the established facility-level material flow inventory of five typical HTEs (Hg, As, Cd, Cr, and Pb) of Chinese CFIBs in 2020, we explored the enrichment characteristics and environmental risks of HTEs in wastes at the regional scale from the perspective of substance flow and enrichment levels. Results showed that the shares of HTEs entering the waste stream were 2.2–16.8 % higher in the focus regions of continuous improvement of air quality compared to the non-focus regions, explained by the higher synergistic control efficiencies of their air pollution control facilities (ACPFs), at 86.6–90.4 % (Hg), 98.6–99.1 % (As), 95.1–95.9 % (Cd), 93.2–94.8 % (Cr), and 97.1–98.0 % (Pb), respectively. In addition, the national averages of HTEs in slag, fly ash, and flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) were simulated to be 0.15–0.87 g/t, 3.25–18.44 g/t, 0.30–0.96 g/t, 19.76–70.11 g/t, and 15.85–73.74 for Hg, As, Cd, Cr, and Pb, respectively. Nationally, the integrated environmental risks of the five HTEs in slag, fly ash, and FGD residue exhibited Considerable, Very High, and Very High level of environmental risk, with the cumulative environmental risk indexes of 171, 317, and 281, respectively. Hg and Cd were the major contributors to the environmental risks of slag, fly ash, and FGD residue, with environmental risk contributions ranging from 23.8 to 82.3 % and 16.0 to 66.1 %, respectively. Results can provide data support for modelling the environmental release of HTEs from wastes and formulating control strategies for environmental management agencies.

Textuality as amplification: reconsidering close reading and distant reading in cultural history

ABSTRACT This article discusses the idea of distant reading and explores the ways in which it can be conducted in research. It focuses especially on how distant reading can contribute to the study of cultural history, which is often regarded as a domain of close reading. The article argues that distant reading methods can successfully be applied in the analysis of cultural transmission in the past, where it is often essential to combine the study of textual signification with the idea of textuality as material flow. The article draws on an example from press history and especially discusses text reuse detection as a strategy for identifying textual amplification.

Effects of high gravity on properties of parts fabricated using material extrusion system by additive manufacturing

Additive manufacturing (AM) has gained significant attention in recent years owing to its ability to fabricate intricate shapes and structures that are often challenging or unattainable using conventional manufacturing techniques. This high-quality development trend entails higher requirements for the structural design of 3D printers. In this study, polylactic acid (PLA) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) filaments were fed through a heated extrusion nozzle, which melted the material and deposited it onto a build platform. This study's objectives are high-gravitational material extrusion (HG-MEX) systems development, analyzing the high gravity influences on the flow behavior of materials during extrusion, and understanding the effects of gravitational on material flow and overall extrusion performance. HG-MEX systems have great potential for addressing various challenges in additive manufacturing, such as precise manufacturing. The highlight of the progress is that we developed an HG-MEX system and applied surface science to material extrusion in different gravity. We established a system and obtained results on different gravity, we analyzed the analogy between different gravity phenomena. We analyzed the interplay between the behavior of the fabricated parts and gravity. We analyzed high gravity effects on extrusion processes. The results confirmed the characteristics and feasibility of the developed system. The results suggest that a material extrusion line operating under 15 G conditions resulted in better printing quality compared to one operating under 1 G conditions. This observation implies that high gravity had a positive effect on the extrusion process, leading to improved material extrusion performance.

Tuning generalized planar fault energies to enable deformation twinning in nanocrystalline aluminum alloys

As deformation twins have a profound impact on the plastic flow and mechanical properties of metallic materials, enhancing deformation twinning in face-centered cubic (FCC) metallic materials has long served as a unique microstructure design strategy to attain an extraordinary strength-ductility synergy. Deformation twinning, however, rarely occurs in pure FCC Al and its alloys since its generalized planar fault energies (GPFEs) are almost unaffected by most soluble alloying elements such as Mg, Zn and Cu. Here we successfully tune the GPFEs of a nanocrystalline Al-Mg alloy by alloying with Zr, Fe or Y element, and enable deformation twinning in the Zr-, Fe- and Y-containing alloys. Based on a combined analysis of microscopic observations, modeling and ab initio calculations, we find a strong grain-size-dependent twinning (i.e., twinning occurs in preferable grains having sizes in the range ∼20–40 nm), as well as only one single twinning plane (i.e., twinning occurs in single, parallel atomic planes) for twin formation rather than intersecting twinning planes (i.e., twinning occurs in multiple, unparallel atomic planes) usually observed in coarse-grained FCC materials. This interesting twinning behavior is further observed to be accompanied by grain rotations, producing defective twin boundaries. Our experimental results extend the current understanding of the plastic deformation mechanisms in nanograined metallic materials, and will guide microstructure design of twinnable nanograined Al alloys with an improved strength-ductility synergy.

Finite Element Analysis of Plastic Deformation in Ultrasonic Vibration Superimposed Face Milling of Steel X46Cr13.

Ultrasonic vibration superimposed face milling enables the generation of predefined surface microstructures by an appropriate setting of the process parameters. The geometrical reproducibility of the surface characteristics depends strongly on the plastic material deformation. Thus, the precise prediction of the emerging surface microstructures using kinematic simulation models is limited, because they ignore the influence of material flow. Consequently, the effects of plastic as well as elastic deformation are investigated in depth by finite element analysis. Microstructured surfaces resulting from these numerical models are characterized quantitatively by areal surface parameters and compared to those from a kinematical simulation and a real machined surface. A high degree of conformity between the values of the simulated surfaces and the measured values is achieved, particularly with regard to material distribution. Deficits in predictability exist primarily due to deviations in plastic deformation. Future research can address this, either by implementing a temperature consideration or adapting specific modeling aspects like an adjusted depth of cut or experimental validated material parameters.

Physicochemical attributes and bacteriome diversity of Lake Tunari, Taraba State, Nigeria

Physicochemical parameters of aquatic habitats can play an influential part in shaping the microbial communities of water bodies. In this study, water samples from Lake Tunari were analysed for its microbiome and physicochemical attributes, using spectrophotometric and culture-dependent methodologies respectively. The temperature of the lake ranged from 28.00 – 29.00 (°C), while the pH ranged from 6.50 – 7.20. Heavy metals such as Manganese (0.48 ppm), Lead (0.14 ppm) and Selenium (0.10 ppm) showed significantly high values in selected parts of the lake, surpassing limits set by the World Health Organisation. Microbiome analysis revealed the largest phylum across sample sites as Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, and Planctomycetota with peak relative abundance values of 64.13%, 45.29% and 16.11% respectively. Bacterial genera such as Exiguobacterium, Methylocystis and Rhodoferax were detected from designated sites. The presence of these genera capable of tolerating, utilizing or degrading metal ions in water samples of the Lake might be indicative of chemical and metal trickles into the water body. In addition, relatively new and understudied bacterial phyla such as Gemmatimonadota, as well as unknown bacterial clades were identified from water samples of the lake. This study has revealed that Lake Tunari is not impervious to pollution, caused by either anthropogenic activities or from adjoining water channels. Environmental health awareness programs can be introduced to enlighten the populace, while scheduled microbial and physicochemical surveillance can be adopted, to control microbial contamination and curtail toxic material inflow into the Lake.

Carbon Management Accounting Considerations for Corporate Carbon Reduction: The Limitations and Future of Integrating Life Cycle Assessment and Material Flow Cost Accounting

Carbon Management Accounting Considerations for Corporate Carbon Reduction: The Limitations and Future of Integrating Life Cycle Assessment and Material Flow Cost Accounting

Improving flow dynamics and storage longevity of a low-cost phosphorescent fingerprint powder.

An inexpensive, commercially available doped strontium aluminate phosphor with long-lived afterglow was prepared as a luminescent fingerprint dusting powder suited for challenging, highly patterned substrates; however, prolonged exposure to humidity was found to reduce that powder's affinity for fingermarks. Here, an enhanced preparation for synthesizing that fingerprint dusting powder is presented that prevents powder aggregation and loss of function upon exposure to humid environments. This was achieved by introducing a flow regulator during synthesis: hydrophobic silica SIPERNAT® D10 or SIPERNAT® D17. Increasing the hydrophobicity of the powder prevents aggregation by inhibiting the uptake of water, thereby improving the material's flow dynamics and transfer behavior from brush to fingermark. The angle of repose and flow characteristics made by the modified powders were quantified, with excellent affinity for fingermarks observed, even after being stored under 85% (±5%) humidity for 4 weeks. A preliminary comparison of the performance of the modified hydrophobic powders relative to the unmodified precursor revealed that more of the SIPERNAT® treated powder typically adhered to fingermarks while simultaneously imparting less background development. In addition, fewer clumps of particulate were observed in the developed fingermarks after addition of a hydrophobic flow regulator. This technical report outlines the updated method for synthesizing the fingerprint powder, with summarized flow performance results, and a demonstration of the modified powder's affinity for simulated fingermark evidence.

Assessing the Impact of Recycled Building Materials on Environmental Sustainability and Energy Efficiency: A Comprehensive Framework for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions

In this study, we critically examine the potential of recycled construction materials, focusing on how these materials can significantly reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and energy usage in the construction sector. By adopting an integrated approach that combines Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Material Flow Analysis (MFA) within the circular economy framework, we thoroughly examine the lifecycle environmental performance of these materials. Our findings reveal a promising future where incorporating recycled materials in construction can significantly lower GHG emissions and conserve energy. This underscores their crucial role in advancing sustainable construction practices. Moreover, our study emphasizes the need for robust regulatory frameworks and technological innovations to enhance the adoption of environmentally responsible practices. We encourage policymakers, industry stakeholders, and the academic community to collaborate and promote the adoption of a circular economy strategy in the building sector. Our research contributes to the ongoing discussion on sustainable construction, offering evidence-based insights that can inform future policies and initiatives to improve environmental stewardship in the construction industry. This study aligns with the European Union’s objectives of achieving climate-neutral cities by 2030 and the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals outlined for completion by 2030. Overall, this paper contributes to the ongoing dialogue on sustainable construction, providing a fact-driven basis for future policy and initiatives to enhance environmental stewardship in the industry.

Numerical Optimization of Variable Blank Holder Force Trajectories in Stamping Process for Multi-Defect Reduction.

An intelligent optimization technology was proposed to mitigate prevalent multi-defects, particularly failure, wrinkling, and springback in sheet metal forming. This method combined deep neural networks (DNNs), genetic algorithms (GAs), and Monte Carlo simulation (MCS), collectively as DNN-GA-MCS. Our primary aim was to determine intricate process parameters while elucidating the intricate relationship between processing methodologies and material properties. To achieve this goal, variable blank holder force (VBHF) trajectories were implemented into five sub-stroke steps, facilitating adjustments to the blank holder force via numerical simulations with an oil pan model. The Forming Limit Diagram (FLD) predicted by machine learning algorithms based on the Generalized Incremental Stress State Dependent Damage (GISSMO) model provided a robust framework for evaluating sheet failure dynamics during the stamping process. Numerical results confirmed significant improvements in formed quality: compared with the average value of training sets, the improvements of 18.89%, 13.59%, and 14.26% are achieved in failure, wrinkling, and springback; in the purposed two-segmented mode VBHF case application, the average value of three defects is improved by 12.62%, and the total summation of VBHF is reduced by 14.07%. Statistical methodologies grounded in material flow analysis were applied, accompanied by the proposal of distinctive optimization strategies for the die structure aimed at enhancing material flow efficiency. In conclusion, our advanced methodology exhibits considerable potential to improve sheet metal forming processes, highlighting its significant effect on defect reduction.

Techno-economic optimisation of steel supply chains in the clean energy transition: A case study of post-war Ukraine

The steel industry's clean energy transition can enable new market creation and economic growth stimulation. Yet, the most efficient and feasible pathway to decouple the sector from fossil fuels remains unclear, particularly within developing nations and unstable socio-political contexts. Here, a blueprint for reconfiguring plant locations and reallocating resources is developed through a Ukrainian case study under two scenarios, which capture potential post-war conditions. Framed by regrowth of Ukraine's export-oriented steel industry and prospective European Union accession, green iron and steel trade strategies are devised. A steel supply chain optimisation model underpins the techno-economic, spatially granular analysis of energy and material flows, which utilises the inputs from a separate cost-minimised renewable energy, green hydrogen, and green ammonia production model. Results show that optimal supply chain configurations rely on mixed emissions-free energy profiles, the emergence of new steelmaking sites nearby high-quality renewables, regional alliances for green iron and steel market creation, and multi-billion-dollar investment. Mature nuclear and hydro power critically reduce costs in the near-term, whilst the rapid expansion of solar and wind energy infrastructure underpins production system scale-up. To simultaneously rebuild the 22 million-tonnes-a-year Ukrainian steel industry and transition to near-zero emissions by 2050, infrastructure investment surmounts to $62 billion, given full liberation of Ukrainian territory. Near-term investment is necessary to ease the pace of change, and although mobilising capital of this magnitude will be challenging, convincing carbon prices favour decarbonisation efforts.