Materials Science Engineering Research Articles

Effective Atomic Numbers of Glass Samples

Effective atomic numbers are a term used to understand the interaction of a compound or material with radiation. In particular, this term is often used for materials with complex structures that can be expressed by a single fixed atomic number. If different elements in a material are present in different concentrations, the effective atomic number of the material can be calculated by considering the contribution of each element. This is a useful method to better understand the response of the material to radiation or the effect of radiation within the material. In particular, when radiation passes through or acts on the material, the effective atomic number plays an important role in determining factors such as the material's radiation exposure properties, absorption or scattering. Effective atomic numbers are used in radiation interaction analyses in various fields such as materials science, medicine, geophysics and industry. This concept is used to express in a simpler way the radiation properties of compounds in which different elements are combined. In this study, the effective atomic numbers of magnesium borosilicate glasses were investigated. Such studies are important in the field of materials science and glass technology because the chemical constituents of glass and their interactions play a decisive role in the properties of glass. Magnesium borosilicate glasses are often used in industrial applications. The properties of these glasses depend on the amount of elements they contain and their chemical structure. Effective atomic numbers can be used to understand the specific properties of a material. By determining the effective atomic numbers of the elements contained in the glass, this study aims to provide an important basis for understanding the properties of the material, such as radiation exposure, electrical properties or optical properties.

Advancements in dental implant technology: the impact of smart polymers utilized through 3D printing

The field of dental implantology has witnessed significant advancements in recent years, driven by innovations in materials science and manufacturing technologies. One such innovation that holds promise for revolutionizing dental implant generation is the mixing of smart polymers thru three-D printing. This evaluation article affords a comprehensive overview of the effect of clever polymers in enhancing the performance and functionality of dental implants. We begin by using elucidating the fundamental residences of smart polymers, which include their stimuli-responsive conduct, biocompatibility, and mechanical strength. sooner or later, we discover the evolution and programs of 3ِD printing, e.g. like direct metallic laser sintering (DMLS) and selective laser melting (SLM), in dentistry, highlighting its position in fabricating custom designed dental implants. the combination of smart polymers into dental implants is discussed in element, overlaying surface modification techniques, incorporation of bioactive dealers, and customization for affected person-particular desires. furthermore, we look at how smart polymers make contributions to enhancing aspects such as osseointegration, peri-implantitis management, and average implant toughness. clinical insights and case studies are presented to illustrate the real-global applications and results of clever polymer-based dental implants. ultimately, this evaluation objectives to offer valuable insights for clinicians, researchers, and industry specialists worried within the improvement and utilization of advanced dental implant technologies.

Modelling and Control of a Magnetic Levitation System

Magnetic Levitation Systems (MLS), or Maglev for short, utilise magnetic fields to levitate objects. They find applications in various scientific fields, particularly transportation, materials science, and biomedical engineering. Due to the diverse applications, different modelling and control approaches are necessary. The operation of each Maglev system depends on specific physical parameters. These key variables include the weight of the object being levitated, the current supplied to the system, the internal resistance and inductance of the electromagnet, and the distance between the object and the electromagnet. This research aims to understand the working principles of MLS. We will design and simulate a model based on real MLS hardware using MATLAB & Simulink. Additionally, we will create a functional Maglev prototype and program its control system using Arduino IDE and an Arduino microcontroller. MATLAB & Simulink offer a powerful tool for creating behavioral models for MLS. This model will then be integrated with Arduino programming to control the Maglev prototype.

Unlocking fast‐charging capabilities of lithium‐ion batteries through liquid electrolyte engineering

AbstractGlobal trends toward green energy have empowered the extensive application of high‐performance energy storage systems. With the worldwide spread of electric vehicles (EVs), lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) capable of fast‐charging have become increasingly important. Nonetheless, state‐of‐the‐art LIBs have failed to satisfy the demands of prospective customers, including rapid charging, extended cycle life, and high energy density. Addressing these challenges through innovations in material science and other advanced battery technologies is essential for meeting the growing demands of prospective customers. Besides the choice of active materials, electrolyte formulation has a significant impact on the fast‐charging performance and cycle life of LIBs over a wide range of temperatures. The liquid electrolyte is typically composed of lithium salts to provide an ion source, solvents to carry Li+ ions, and functional additives to build a stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI). To enable the fast movement of Li+ ions, the liquid electrolytes should have low viscosity and high ionic conductivity. Meanwhile, SEI layers must be thin, uniform and ionically conductive. Furthermore, the low binding energy of the solvent facilitates desolvation of the solvation sheath, enabling fast Li+ ion transport to the anode during fast charging. This review provides the latest insights into rapid Li+ ion transport during fast charging, focusing on ensuring a deeper understanding of liquid electrolyte chemistry. The involvement of existing electrolyte mechanisms in materials discovery will develop electrolyte engineering techniques to improve the fast‐charging performance of batteries over a wide temperature range and will also facilitate the development of EV‐adoptable advanced electrodes.image

Pressure-induced temperature-driven phase transition and compressibility studies on nanocrystalline and bulk -U3O8 at extreme conditions of pressure and temperature

The study investigates the structural transition pathways of U3O8 under varying temperature and pressure conditions, focusing on both bulk and nanocrystalline forms. The bulk U3O8 is known to undergo reversible phase transitions to a hexagonal structure at temperatures above 150°C and irreversible transitions to a fluorite structure under pressure at ambient temperature. High-pressure XRD experiments reveal a significant decrease in transition pressure for the hexagonal to fluorite phase transition in bulk U3O8, with the HT-hex phase exhibiting a bulk modulus of 155 ± 21 GPa at 450°C. In 82 nm nanocrystalline U3O8, the transition from orthorhombic to hexagonal phase is reversible up to 1.0 GPa and 500°C but becomes irreversible above 1.7 GPa. The bulk modulus of the hexagonal phase of nanocrystalline U3O8 is estimated to be 168±12 GPa and 146±16 GPa at 400°C and 500°C, respectively. The findings highlight the complexity of structural transformations in U3O8 and their dependence on temperature and pressure, offering insights valuable for materials science and nuclear reactor engineering.

Advanced biomedical and electronic dual-function skin patch created through microfluidic-regulated 3D bioprinting

Artificial skin involves multidisciplinary efforts, including materials science, biology, medicine, and tissue engineering. Recent studies have aimed at creating skins that are multifunctional, intelligent, and capable of regenerating tissue. In this work, we present a specialized 3D printing ink composed of polyurethane and bioactive glass (PU-BG) and prepare dual-function skin patch by microfluidic-regulated 3D bioprinting (MRBP) technique. The MRBP endows the skin patch with a highly controlled microstructure and superior strength. Besides, an asymmetric tri-layer is further constructed, which promotes cell attachment and growth through a dual transport mechanism based on hydrogen bonds and gradient structure from hydrophilic to superhydrophilic. More importantly, by combining the features of biomedical skin with electronic skin (e-skin), we achieved a biomedical and electronic dual-function skin patch. In vivo experiments have shown that this skin patch can enhance hemostasis, resist bacterial growth, stimulate the regeneration of blood vessels, and accelerate the healing process. Meanwhile, it also mimics the sensory functions of natural skin to realize signal detection, where the sensitivity reached up to 5.87 kPa−1, as well as cyclic stability (over 500 cycles), a wide detection range of 0–150 kPa, high pressure resolution of 0.1 % under the pressure of 100 kPa. This work offers a versatile and effective method for creating dual-function skin patches and provide new insights into wound healing and tissue repair, which have significant implications for clinical applications.

Estimating the elastic modulus of concrete under moderately elevated temperatures via impulse excitation technique

PurposeTo evaluate the temperature-dependency of the Young’s and shear moduli of concrete after exposure to moderately elevated temperatures using the non-destructive impulse excitation technique (IET).Design/methodology/approachThe study involved heating the concrete up to 225 °C and measuring the dynamic Young’s and shear moduli using the non-destructive technique of impulse excitation, which measures the natural vibration frequency from a mechanical impulse received by an acoustic sensor. The effects of temperature on the dynamic Young’s and shear moduli were analysed and the importance of the spatial variability of the measured values was also verified.FindingsThe study found that even moderately elevated temperatures (below 225 °C) resulted in a significant permanent reduction in the Young’s modulus of concrete (reduction in the range of 23%–36% for the maximum temperature considered in this research) as well as a modest and permanent reduction in the shear modulus of around 6%. It was also observed that spatial variability of the mechanical properties of concrete plays an important role in the measured values; higher dispersion of the results was found for the values of the Young’s and shear moduli of concrete measured along the height of the beam. The non-destructive test method used in this study was found to be extremely useful in the investigation of heat-related damage in concrete structures for its ease of use, low time consumption and accuracy. The results were consistent with the published literature.Originality/valueThis study provides important insights into the temperature-dependent behaviour of the dynamic Young’s and shear moduli of concrete and highlights the significance of proper consideration of the spatial variability of the measured values. The use of a non-destructive test method for continuous acoustic testing during heating and cooling proved to be effective, and the findings contribute to the fields of materials science and civil engineering in understanding the effects of elevated temperatures on concrete properties. The findings confirm that IET can be easily used to gather important information in the condition assessment and rehabilitation of concrete structures after a fire event. Further studies to foster the application of this technique to real structures are suggested.

Imbalanced spectral data analysis using data augmentation based on the generative adversarial network

Spectroscopic techniques generate one-dimensional spectra with distinct peaks and specific widths in the frequency domain. These features act as unique identities for material characteristics. Deep neural networks (DNNs) has recently been considered a powerful tool for automatically categorizing experimental spectra data by supervised classification to evaluate material characteristics. However, most existing work assumes balanced spectral data among various classes in the training data, contrary to actual experiments, where the spectral data is usually imbalanced. The imbalanced training data deteriorates the supervised classification performance, hindering understanding of the phase behavior, specifically, sol-gel transition (gelation) of soft materials and glycomaterials. To address this issue, this paper applies a novel data augmentation method based on a generative adversarial network (GAN) proposed by the authors in their prior work. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method, the actual imbalanced spectral data from Pluronic F-127 hydrogel and Alpha-Cyclodextrin hydrogel are used to classify the phases of data. Specifically, our approach improves 8.8%, 6.4%, and 6.2% of the performance of the existing data augmentation methods regarding the classifier’s F-score, Precision, and Recall on average, respectively. Specifically, our method consists of three DNNs: the generator, discriminator, and classifier. The method generates samples that are not only authentic but emphasize the differentiation between material characteristics to provide balanced training data, improving the classification results. Based on these validated results, we expect the method’s broader applications in addressing imbalanced measurement data across diverse domains in materials science and chemical engineering.

Ice‐Mediated Reactions and Assemblies in Diverse Domains

AbstractIn chemistry, biology, and materials science, ice‐mediated reactions and ice‐template assembly techniques are garnering increasing attention due to their unique advantages. Such approaches not only offer deep insights into the fundamental roles of ice in nature but also pave new avenues for various applications. This review comprehensively explores the mechanisms and applications of ice‐mediated reactions and assembly. It begins by examining the principles of ice‐mediated reactions, particularly how certain chemical reactions are accelerated in the micro‐environment of ice through freeze‐concentration and freeze‐potential effects, and the relationship between the surface structure and properties of ice and chemical reactions. This work then studies significant chemical reactions within the realms of environmental, biological, and materials science engineering, shedding light on the role of ice in these reactions. Furthermore, this work explores the fundamentals of ice templating in material assembly, describe the main ice‐templating methods, and highlight the ice‐templated materials along with their diverse applications. This work concludes by summarizing the prospective challenges and untapped potentials in the field of ice‐mediated reactions and assembly. This review not only accentuates the transformative impact of ice‐mediated techniques in scientific domains but also serves as an useful guide for future research initiatives and practical applications in this burgeoning field.

Scalable-produced micro-elastic triboelectric sensing ground for all-weather large-scale applications

Large-scale smart floor will be one potential form for a human–machine interface, but is also facing many difficulties and challenges in the materials science and information engineering. Here, we present a straightforward method for fabricating large-scale micro-elastic triboelectric nanogenerator (ME-TENG) arrays, which can be assembled as triboelectric sensing ground for real-time interface interaction and all-weather monitoring. ME-TENG unit of 6 by 6 arrays offers a maximum power density of 5.84 mW·m−2 under a load resistance of 70 MΩ. It displays a sensitivity of 132.48 mV/kPa in the pressure range of 0 to 180 kPa. The electrical output signals have remained stable in the durability tests over 10 days with various weather conditions. Furthermore, successfully demonstrated a regional comprehensive security monitoring (RCSM) system for enabling all-weather monitoring of the features, position, and movement trajectories of an object. Even more gratifying is that the ME-TENG unit of 30 cm by 30 cm prepared by a simple and fast “all-in-one” method, takes costs of 14.84 dollars/m2 and the production period of 2 h, compared with the most cost-effective piezoelectric sensors, the cost and duration were reduced by 98.67 % and 42.86 %, respectively. This work will greatly contribute to the development and implementation of large-scale sensing and the multidimensional security system.

STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF MINERAL ADMIXTURE ADDITION ON PAVING BLOCKS' PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Paving blocks, concrete bricks made from cement and sand, are a vital alternative to ground cover. Their extensive, precast nature, water absorption capabilities, affordability, and ease of use contribute to their popularity. However, the additional ingredients, particularly mineral admixtures, hold the potential to enhance these blocks' quality and performance significantly. The mineral admixtures used, such as limestone, quartz sand, and gypsum, are instrumental in improving the performance of paving blocks, offering a promising avenue for further research and application. This research, conducted with meticulous scientific rigor, investigated paving blocks' physical and mechanical properties. Paving block test objects were created using sand, cement, and crushed stone with mineral admixtures. The mineral admixtures used in this experiment, including gypsum, quartz sand, and limestone, were crushed before being used in a stone cruiser machine to make them powder and reactive. Compressive strength test, weat resistance test, volume weight test, water absorption test, and visual inspection were conducted experimentally. The research results, derived from a robust experimental setup, revealed that paving blocks with 10% gypsum additives, 6% quartz sand powder, and limestone powder produced a more excellent compressive strength value than standard paving blocks, values of 36,884 MPa, 37,573 MPa, and 38,950 MPa with a regular paving block compressive strength value of 36,119 MPa followed by a decrease in the percentage of absorption. This suggests that using mineral admixtures at a certain percentage as an additional material can improve the quality of paving blocks. However, it is essential to note that adding too many mineral admixtures can also decrease the strength of the paving block, emphasizing the need for careful application of these materials in construction. These findings provide valuable insights for civil engineers, construction professionals, and researchers in materials science and construction technology, enhancing their understanding of the role of mineral admixtures in paving block strength.

Laboratory and Numerical Investigation of Pre-Tensioned Reinforced Concrete Railway Sleepers Combined with Plastic Fiber Reinforcement.

This research investigates the application of plastic fiber reinforcement in pre-tensioned reinforced concrete railway sleepers, conducting an in-depth examination in both experimental and computational aspects. Utilizing 3-point bending tests and the GOM ARAMIS system for Digital Image Correlation, this study meticulously evaluates the structural responses and crack development in conventional and plastic fiber-reinforced sleepers under varying bending moments. Complementing these tests, the investigation employs ABAQUS' advanced finite element modeling to enhance the analysis, ensuring precise calibration and validation of the numerical models. This dual approach comprehensively explains the mechanical behavior differences and stresses within the examined structures. The incorporation of plastic fibers not only demonstrates a significant improvement in mechanical strength and crack resistance but paves the way for advancements in railway sleeper technology. By shedding light on the enhanced durability and performance of reinforced concrete structures, this study makes a significant contribution to civil engineering materials science, highlighting the potential for innovative material applications in the construction industry.

Gram matrix: an efficient representation of molecular conformation and learning objective for molecular pretraining.

Accurate prediction of molecular properties is fundamental in drug discovery and development, providing crucial guidance for effective drug design. A critical factor in achieving accurate molecular property prediction lies in the appropriate representation of molecular structures. Presently, prevalent deep learning-based molecular representations rely on 2D structure information as the primary molecular representation, often overlooking essential three-dimensional (3D) conformational information due to the inherent limitations of 2D structures in conveying atomic spatial relationships. In this study, we propose employing the Gram matrix as a condensed representation of 3D molecular structures and for efficient pretraining objectives. Subsequently, we leverage this matrix to construct a novel molecular representation model, Pre-GTM, which inherently encapsulates 3D information. The model accurately predicts the 3D structure of a molecule by estimating the Gram matrix. Our findings demonstrate that Pre-GTM model outperforms the baseline Graphormer model and other pretrained models in the QM9 and MoleculeNet quantitative property prediction task. The integration of the Gram matrix as a condensed representation of 3D molecular structure, incorporated into the Pre-GTM model, opens up promising avenues for its potential application across various domains of molecular research, including drug design, materials science, and chemical engineering.

BiVO4-based heterojunction nanophotocatalysts for water splitting and organic pollutant degradation: a comprehensive review of photocatalytic innovation

Abstract The novel semiconductor photocatalytic material bismuth vanadate (BiVO4) is gaining significant attention in research due to its unique characteristics, which include a low band gap, good responsiveness to visible light, and non-toxic nature. However, intrinsic constraints such as poor photogenerated charge transfer, slow water oxidation kinetics, and fast electron–hole pair recombination limit the photocatalytic activity of BiVO4. Building heterojunctions has shown to be an effective strategy for enhancing charge separation and impeding electron–hole pair recombination over the last few decades. This review covers the state-of-the-art developments in heterojunction nanomaterials based on BiVO4 for photocatalysis. It explores heterojunction design, clarifies reaction mechanisms, and highlights the current developments in applications including photocatalytic water splitting and organic matter degradation. Finally, it offers a preview of the development paths and opportunities for BiVO4-based heterojunction nanomaterials in the future. This comprehensive assessment of BiVO4-based heterojunctions provides insightful knowledge to researchers in materials science, chemistry, and environmental engineering that will drive advances and breakthroughs in these important fields.

Data analysis of non-linear radiative electro-periodic MHD flow past a stretching sheet with activation energy impact

Electro-periodic Magneto-hydrodynamics (EPMHD), activation energy, and non-linear radiation are pivotal elements in engineering and industry also contribute to advancements in fields like heat transfer, materials science, and chemical engineering. Through similarity transformation, governing partial differential equations simplify into ordinary differential equations. Precise computational solutions are derived using the Nachtsheim-Swigert shooting iteration method (NSSIM) and the reliable 6th-order Runge-Kutta integration algorithm (RKIA). The profiles of velocities, temperatures, concentrations, skin friction, heat and mass transfer rate are presented by graphically. The novel aspect of this research is that thermal performance is enhanced by non-linear radiation by around 2.28%, whereas linear radiation only produces a 0.28% improvement in thermal performance. Also the mass transfer rate experiences a decrease of about 25.76% with increasing chemical reactions in the presence of activation energy and a more substantial 62.22% reduction in its absence, notably showing a comparatively milder decline of 36.46% in the presence of activation energy than in its absence. Furthermore, this study yields three novel linear regression equations, skillfully derived from the numerical and graphical results. This research have practical applications in understanding and optimizing processes involving fluid dynamics, such as the behavior of certain materials or substances subjected to stretching or deformation.

Innovative modeling of monolayer puckered arsenene: Bridging quantum mechanics and finite element analysis

Current study presents a novel hybrid approach combining finite element modeling and density functional theory calculations to investigate the mechanical properties of monolayer puckered arsenene. The multiscale analysis in this study leverages finite element analysis as a distinctive approach, complementing the nano‐scale capabilities of density functional theory and molecular dynamics by overcoming limitations faced by these two methods in representing complex scenarios. Furthermore, finite element analysis demonstrates computational efficiency for larger structures, making it suitable for systems where atomistic simulations may be impractical. This hybrid methodology offers a unique framework for accurately predicting key properties, including elastic modulus and buckling force, by synergistically integrating the strengths of both computational techniques. In addition to demonstrating the effectiveness of our approach in accurately capturing material behavior, our findings shed light on fundamental aspects of nanoscale mechanics, with implications for various applications in nanotechnology, materials science, and structural engineering. By providing a deeper understanding of the mechanical response of 2D materials, our research contributes to advancing the field of nanoscale materials engineering and informs the design of innovative nanostructures with tailored mechanical properties.

DFT and TD‐DFT Study of Many‐Body and Hydrogen Bonding Interactions: Nitrosamine Oligomers

AbstractThis study focuses on the properties and intermolecular interactions of nitrosamine oligomers, which are important in both semiconductor manufacturing and nuclear waste management. The study explores various configurations of nitrosamine oligomers, ranging from monomers to pentamers in linear, ladder, and cyclic clusters, with the finding that dimer cyclic forms and hexamers and above are unstable. Many‐body analysis revealed that two‐body interaction energies made remarkable contributions to the binding energy, while the sum of 3‐, 4‐, and 5‐body energy contributed less, indicating the decrease in stability of nitrosamine from dimer to pentamer clusters. Using advanced computational techniques, such as dispersion‐corrected B3LYP‐D3 and TD‐DFT, the study investigates the vibrational modes and electronic absorption spectra of nitrosamine oligomers. The results reveal that different configurations can significantly affect the vibrational modes and electronic properties of nitrosamine oligomers. The NH2 symmetric and asymmetric modes were particularly intense in various forms of nitrosamine oligomers. The wavelengths of electronic transition, oscillator strength, and HOMO to LUMO gap were reported. Additionally, the study reports on nitrosamine oligomers’ hydrogen‐bonded cooperativity and binding energy contributions. Overall, these findings offer valuable insights into the stability and properties of nitrosamine oligomers, with potential applications in materials science and chemical engineering.

Applications of Cryogenic Electron Microscopy in Characterizing Electrochemical Materials and Interfaces

Cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) has emerged as a pivotal technology in materials science, particularly in characterizing electrochemical materials and interfaces. This paper delves into the recent advancements and applications of cryo-EM, underscoring its significance in understanding the intricate structures and mechanisms of materials sensitive to air and electron beams, such as lithium-ion battery electrodes. Cryo-EM's ability to capture materials in a near-natural state using vitreous ice and its compatibility with advanced imaging techniques like cryo-electron energy loss spectroscopy (cryo-EELS), cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET), and cryo-focused ion beam (cryo-FIB) enhances our understanding of quantum and energy materials. This research will discuss the revolutionary impact of cryo-EM in areas like energy conservation and conversion, highlighting its role in visualizing sensitive materials and electrochemical reaction processes. This research addresses the need for comprehensive discussions on the characterization of quantum and energy materials through cryo-EM and related techniques, offering a thorough overview of recent advancements in this rapidly evolving field.

Numerical modeling of mixed convective nanofluid flow with fractal stochastic heat and mass transfer using finite differences

This study presents the first comprehensive numerical simulation of heat and mass transfer in fractal-like mixed convective nanofluid flows. The flow of non-Newtonian nanofluids over flat and oscillating sheets is modelled mathematically, and a finite difference scheme is used to solve this model. The two-stage scheme can tackle fractal and fractal stochastic mathematical models of partial differential equations. The consistency in the mean square is proved, and Fourier series stability analysis is adopted to find stability conditions for fractal stochastic partial differential equation. The scheme is applied to solve the unsteady Casson nanofluid flow over the flat and oscillatory sheet, which affects thermal radiation, heat source, and chemical reaction. The existence of the solution is also provided for the Navier-Stokes equation of the considered flow model using fractal time derivative. The graph illustrates that the proposed fractal technique achieves faster convergence than the Crank-Nicolson approach. Applications in energy systems, materials science, and environmental engineering are just a few of the domains that could benefit from a better understanding of mixed convective nanofluid flows with fractal features, and that is what this research study hopes to accomplish. Scientists and engineers may better develop efficient and environmentally friendly systems by simulating and analyzing these complicated processes with the suggested finite difference technique.

Concrete touchdown: new technology influences industrial buildings in Norway, 1912–1920

Construction technology developed quickly during the first decades of the twentieth century. This influenced the construction of industrial buildings at the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization World Heritage site of Rjukan and Notodden in Norway. Behind the construction was Hydro, a company founded in 1905 to produce synthetic nitrogen fertiliser to increase the world’s food production. This industrial development demanded large structures such as hydropower stations and production facilities. Concrete was introduced for the first time during this period, and systems are characterised by heavy concrete bearing walls and mixed bearing walls where concrete and steel were combined. Such systems demanded significant material resources and resulted in the development of steel and concrete skeleton frames. The development of viable systems was achieved through research in materials science and structural engineering, in both the USA and Europe. This paper discusses how concrete influenced construction and building systems at this site. Similarities to industrial buildings and other building typologies are evident and connect the site to the international context of architecture and engineering history. Understanding the characteristics of individual buildings and presenting them in an order of a construction systems will support the work of architects and engineers in future conservation schemes.