Material Production Phase Research Articles

Mechanical properties and sustainability aspects of coconut fiber modified concrete

Coir fiber has been examined for their suitability as reinforcement of concrete. Mechanical properties and sustainability aspects of concrete composites were estimated after 7. 14, and 28 days of curing. Natural reinforcement of 0.46 and 0.62% by weight of coir fiber was added. Fibers were analyzed by means of scanning electron microscope (SEM). Besides, an Eco-audit tool has been used to estimate energy and carbon emission of material, manufacturing, transportation, and disposal phases. It was found that fibers additions lowered the compressive strength compared to plain concrete. However, failures of the composites exhibited good post-cracking behavior. The use of vegetable fibers affects positively the life cycle of the material. Eco-audit results indicate that there is a potential to reduce between 9.15% and 13.35% of embodied energy and between 9.61% and 13.94% of CO2 during the material production phase. These suggest that coir fibers could be useful from the environmental view, although more studies regarding their durability are needed.

Life Cycle Assessment Model of Plastic Products: Comparing Environmental Impacts for Different Scenarios in the Production Stage.

This paper assesses the environmental loads of polypropylene and PP-PE-PET mixed-plastic products throughout the products’ life cycle in the production stage, with particular focus on the looping method. A life cycle model of homogeneous and mixed-plastic products has been developed from the raw material extraction and production phase through its transport with the help of the life cycle assessment method. To find the answers to the questions posed, different impacts were analyzed by the GaBi 9.5 software. The analysis lasted from the beginning of the production process to the end. The aim of this research was to determine the energy and material resources used, the emissions produced, and the environmental impact indicators involved. This article examines three scenarios in the production stage, based on the usage of plastic scrap and process water: (1) plastic scrap and wastewater are recirculated with looping method; (2) plastic scrap goes through an incineration process and wastewater is treated in a municipal wastewater treatment plant; (3) plastic scrap is sent to a municipal landfill and wastewater is treated. This article tries to answer three questions: (1) how can we optimize the production stage? (2) Which materials and streams are recyclable in the design of the life cycle assessment? (3) What is the relationship between the environmental impacts of homogeneous and mixed-plastic products? The results of this research can be used to develop injection-molding processes with lower environmental impacts and lower releases of emissions.

Life cycle analysis for asphalt pavement in Canadian context: modelling and application

ABSTRACT Pavement Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a comprehensive method to evaluate the environmental impacts of a pavement section. It employs a cradle-to-grave approach assessing critical stages of the pavement’s life. Previous LCA case studies used a wide variety of different functional units and factors in order to achieve different goals and scopes. These inconsistent functional units and factors create confusion in understanding the complete picture of environmental impact during the initial construction. Therefore, a set of models of pavement LCA considering every factor of the pavement life cycle phases is needed. Canada is a very large country and the different provinces have different pavement construction practices. Therefore, the goal of this work is to develop a set of useful models for quantifying CO2 emission from pavement construction in Canada. A total of 141 Canadian road sections from the Long Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) database are considered to develop models using machine learning algorithms: multiple linear regression, polynomial regression, decision tree regression and support vector regression. These models determine the significant contributors and quantify the CO2 emission in material production, initial construction, maintenance and use phase. The study also reveals the contribution of Canadian provinces’ CO2 emission involved in the life of a pavement.

Sustainable building material selection: A case study in a Japanese context

The aim of this study was to demonstrate how the choice of building material affects the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associate with the material production phase of a reference building in a Japanese context. The trend of the emission and carbon storage capacity among the five structural frame options was analysed at building, building element and material levels. Based on the results, main points to mitigate the impact were also discussed. Since there thus far been few similar studies in Japan, to aid informed decision making by professionals in the construction industry was aimed, leading to improved sustainability in building design, especially connected to SDGs 9 (Industry, innovation and infrastructure), 12 (Responsible construction and production) and 13 (Climate action).

Analysis of the Energy Balance of Constructions Based on Wood during Their Use in Connection with CO2 Emissions

In the construction industry, it is the material production phase and the use phase of buildings’ life cycles that represent the greatest environmental burden. The presented research focused on wood constructions during their use phase. The primary objective of the research was to determine the amount of CO2 produced during the operation of specific wood constructions in connection with the energy demand for their heating. A correlation analysis of selected parameters revealed a statistically significant correlation between heating medium type and energy demand for heating (p = −0.5773) and between heating medium type and amount of CO2 produced (p = 0.4796). A more detailed analysis showed that, in terms of the average energy demand for heating, the column constructions were the most efficient among the compared construction systems, regardless of the energy standard. Similar findings were obtained for annual CO2 production in connection with the average energy demand for heating. The only difference was that the panel and log constructions exhibited almost identical parameters, which came as a surprise to some extent. The column constructions turned out to be the most efficient again, regardless of their energy standard. The analysis that focused on the heating medium type revealed statistically significant differences among the heating medium types in energy demand for heating (p < 0.0001). The constructions that used electricity for heating were the most energy-efficient. When the individual characteristics of the different heating media in relation to CO2 production were taken into account, the constructions that were heated using biomass were the least polluting. The constructions heated using electricity and gas showed a significantly greater deviation.

Total Life Cycle of Polypropylene Products: Reducing Environmental Impacts in the Manufacturing Phase.

This paper assesses the environmental burdens of a polypropylene product throughout the product’s life cycle, especially focusing on the injection-moulding stage. The complete life cycle model of the polypropylene product has been developed from the raw material extraction and production phase through its usage to the end-of-life stage with the help of the life cycle assessment method. To find the answers to the posed problems, different impacts were analysed by GaBi 8.0 software. The analysis lasted from the cradle to the grave, expanding the analysis of the looping method. The aim of the research was to determine the energy and material resources, emissions, and environmental impact indicators. Basically, the article tried to answer three questions: (1) How can we optimize the production phase for the looping method? (2) Which materials and streams are recyclable in the design of the production process? (3) What is the relationship between life cycle stages and total life cycle of the product? As we inspect the life cycle of the product, the load on the environment was distributed as follows: 91% in the production phase, 3% in the use phase, and 6% in the end-of-life phase. The results of the research can be used to develop technologies, especially the injection-moulding process, with a lower environmental impact.

Carbon emission energy management analysis of LCA-Based fabricated building construction

With the gradual warming of the global climate, the development of low-carbon buildings has become an inevitable trend, and research on the carbon emissions of buildings is also imperative. At present, in most studies on energy management of carbon emissions during the construction process, people cannot analyze them with a more accurate method. In order to find an effective carbon emission analysis method, based on the life cycle assessment method (LCA), this paper establishes a carbon emission model, and calculates the carbon emission of residential building materials in different areas, building materials in different industrial buildings, air conditioning cooling and heating schemes, and the whole life cycle of buildings. This article draws the following conclusions: The relationship between the carbon emissions of residential building materials in different regions is: severe cold area>cold area>hot summer and cold winter area>mild area>hot summer and warm winter area. In the analysis of frame structure, brick concrete structure and steel concrete structure, the most carbon emission is steel concrete structure, and the least is frame structure. The carbon emissions of different forms of air-conditioning cold sources are different. Among them, the second option is the direct-fired lithium bromide absorption chiller and hot water unit. The carbon emissions are related to the energy structure. For prefabricated buildings, the proportion of carbon emissions in the construction use phase is the highest, reaching 75%–80%, and the sum of the construction use phase and the building material production phase accounts for more than 90% of the total.

Comparative Assessment of Environmental Impacts from Open-Cut Pipeline Replacement and Trenchless Cured-in-Place Pipe Renewal Method for Sanitary Sewers

An environmental impact assessment (EIA) involves the evaluation of information about pipe raw materials, processes, and product manufacturing to obtain the associated emissions and ecological impacts. Open-cut (OC) pipeline replacement involves digging a trench along the length of the proposed pipeline, placing the pipe in the trench on suitable bedding materials, and then embedding and backfilling. The trenchless cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) method involves a liquid thermoset resin saturated material that is inserted into the existing pipeline by hydrostatic or air inversion or by mechanically pulling-in and inflating. The liner material is cured-in-place using hot water or steam or light cured using ultraviolet light, resulting in the CIPP product. The objectives of this paper are: (1) to present a literature review on the progress acquired over the years in understanding the environmental impacts from the OC and CIPP methods, (2) to analyze and compare the environmental impacts for small diameter sanitary sewers (SDSS) using USEPA’s tool for the reduction and assessment of chemical and other environmental impacts (TRACI) methodology from the SimaPro software, and (3) to identify the factors that influence the environment for the OC and CIPP methods. Published papers were identified that reported the environmental impacts from the OC and CIPP methods over a period from 1989 through to 2020. An actual case study based on the City of Pasadena, California, river basin was used to carry out an environmental analysis for small diameter OC and CIPP methods. The literature review suggests that the material production phase consumes a large amount of energy and is a major contributor of environmental impacts. Higher environmental impacts from the OC method are a result of longer project durations and more equipment requirements compared to the CIPP. The assessment results show that, on average, CIPP renewal caused 68% less environmental impact, 75% less impact on human health, and 62% less resource depletion as compared to the OC replacement for SDSS. The liner, felt, and resin influenced the environment the most for CIPP as compared to the OC method, where the power consumption of construction equipment and the pipe material had the greatest environmental impacts. It can be concluded that the comparison of the environmental impacts from pipeline renewal and replacement is an important element when considering a sustainable underground infrastructure development. The pipe material and outside diameter should be considered during the installation phase by OC and CIPP methods to allow a detailed evaluation and comparison of their sustainability impacts. This study can be further developed for analyzing the environmental impacts and associated costs of the OC and CIPP methods for sanitary sewers with different project and site conditions.

Carbon emission analyses of concretes made with recycled materials considering CO2 uptake through carbonation absorption

AbstractThe effect of incorporation of recycled powder and CO2 absorption of concrete was not considered in the previous life cycle assessment studies. This study evaluated the carbon emission of recycled concrete with different replacement rate of recycled powder and recycled coarse aggregate, taking the carbon absorption in storage and service phase into consideration. The carbon absorption model of recycled concrete with recycled powder was optimized and validated by rapid carbonization tests. It is found that concrete with recycled powder has favorable carbon absorption capacity and can greatly reduce carbon emission. The carbon emission of recycled concrete with recycled powder decreased 12.4–52.2% when compared to normal concrete, and with the increase in the replacement of recycled materials, this advantage becomes more obvious. The evaluation results show that the raw material production and transportation phase are the two main contributors to the carbon emission of recycled concrete, accounting for 67.03–85.81% and 4.01–15.27%, respectively. The evaluation results also show the compensation benefits in storage and service phase from carbon absorption account for 1.58–26.93%. Meanwhile, the long‐distance delivery of natural coarse aggregates makes it possible for recycled concrete to be widely applied.

Environmental Impacts of Conventional Open-Cut Pipeline Installation and Trenchless Technology Methods: State-of-the-Art Review

With growing concerns about global warming and greenhouse gases (GHG), there is an urgent need to quantify and reduce the environmental impact (EI) of pipeline installation (PI). The most common and popular criterion used to describe sustainability efforts from the environmental perspective is the concept of carbon footprint (CF). A CF is the total set of GHG emissions caused by an organization, event, or product. It is expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2), or its equivalent of other emitted GHGs. The open-cut pipeline installation (OCPI) method involves digging a trench along the length of the proposed pipeline, placing the pipe in the trench on suitable bedding materials and then embedding and backfilling. The trenchless method (TM) involves methods, materials, and equipment capable of the installation of new, replacing old, or renewing existing pipelines with minimal disruption to surface traffic, business, and subsurface. Choosing an appropriate low-carbon emission method to install or renew pipelines is an important task and may consider environmental concerns due to several energy-consuming activities, including material manufacturing, transportation, and installation. Because essentially, every PI and renewal project impacts the environment, it is of utmost importance for the pipeline project owner and the design engineer to evaluate this impact and take necessary actions to minimize any negative consequence. The objective of this paper is to present a literature review on progress acquired over the years in understanding GHG emissions from OCPI and TMs and to discuss a framework for CF estimation. Published papers were identified that reported GHG emissions and CF of the open-cut (OC) method and TM over a period from 1989 through 2019. This literature review suggests that for most of these PI and renewal projects, the material production phase consumes a large amount of energy and is a major contributor of GHG emissions. Higher GHG emissions in the OCPI method is a result of longer project durations and more equipment requirements compared with TMs where a smaller footprint or excavation area is used. Early phases of project planning should include appropriate ecological decisions consistent with the life cycle cost (LCC) and CF considerations. Pipe material and outside diameter should be considered during the installation phase by OC and TM to allow a detailed evaluation and comparison of their sustainability impacts. Incorporation of additional factors, such as cost and duration of the project, into the environmental analysis is recommended for the development of a comprehensive decision-making model to select the most environment-friendly PI method.

A comparative carbon footprint analysis of disposable and reusable vaginal specula

Healthcare systems in the United States have increasingly turned toward the use of disposable medical equipment in an attempt to save time, lower costs, and reduce the transmission of infections. However, the use of disposable instruments is associated with increased solid waste production and may have negative impacts on the environment, such as increased greenhouse gas emissions. The purpose of this study was to inform this discussion; we applied life cycle assessment methods to evaluate the carbon footprints of 3 vaginal specula: a single-use acrylic model and 2 reusable stainless steel models. The functional unit of the study was defined as the completion of 20 gynecologic examinations by either type of speculum. The greenhouse gas emissions (eg, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide) across all life cycle stages, which includes material production and manufacturing, transportation, use and reprocessing, and end-of-life, were analyzed with the use of SimaPro life cycle assessment software and converted into carbon dioxide equivalents. The reusable stainless steel grade 304 speculum was found to have a lesser carbon footprint over multiple model scenarios (different reprocessing techniques, autoclave loading/efficiency, and number of uses) than either the reusable stainless steel grade 316 or the disposable acrylic specula. The material production and manufacturing phase contributed most heavily to the total life cycle carbon footprint of the acrylic speculum, whereas the use and reprocessing phase contributed most to the carbon footprints of both stainless steel specula. The use of disposable vaginal specula is associated with increased greenhouse gas equivalents compared with reusable alternatives with no significant difference in clinical utility. These findings can be used to inform decision-making by healthcare systems, because they weigh a wide range of considerations in making final purchase decisions; similar analytic methods can and should be applied to other components of health systems' waste streams.

The energy consumption and emission of polyurethane pavement construction based on life cycle assessment

Polyurethane-bounded pavement with good road performances is a new pavement form. Whether polyurethane (PU) pavement met the requirements of energy conservation, environmental protection and sustainable development or not, the energy consumption and emission of PU pavement in whole life cycle were analyzed systematically in this paper. Firstly, the life cycle of pavement was divided into six phases: material production, mixture production, transportation, construction, maintenance and recycling according to the construction technology of road in China. Based on the classification of the life cycle environmental impact assessment (LCIA), the effects of six main exhaust gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, CO, SO2, NOx) were divided into four categories: Global Warming Potential (GWP), Eutrophication Potential (EP), Photochemical Smog Potential (POCP) and Acidification Potential (AP). Secondly, the energy consumption and emission of each phase are studied, and the main phase with significant environmental impact was selected. Thirdly, the results of inventory would be normalized and weighted to analyze the environmental impact by the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). The LCIA method was environmental design of industrial product 97 (EDIP 97). Results show that the construction of PU pavement is conducive to energy conservation. Besides, the energy consumption of mixture production phase is the largest in asphalt pavement, and it is material production phase in PU pavement. In terms of emission, the emissions mainly occur in material production and mixture production phases in asphalt pavement, and it is material production phase in PU pavement. Under the same structure, the construction of PU pavement is not conducive to reducing the emission, and will enlarge the GWP, EP and AP. For example, the CO2, N2O and NOx emissions of PU pavement are 1.98, 5.30 and 2.35 times higher than that of asphalt pavement respectively, but the CO emission of asphalt pavement is 3.86 times higher than that of PU pavement. Furthermore, the results of LCIA show that the score of all environmental impact of PU pavement is little smaller than that of asphalt pavement after normalization and weighting. However, the road performances of PU pavement are much better than that of asphalt pavement. With the same environmental impact, PU pavement has a longer service life. It is summarized that PU pavement meets the requirements of environmental protection and sustainable development in the long run. This is conducive to the promotion and application of PU pavement.

Qualitative Evaluation of Greenhouse Gas Emission Footprints from Surface Excavation

With growing concerns about global warming and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, there is an urgent need to evaluate and reduce the carbon footprint (CF) of surface excavation (SE). CF are GHG emissions caused by an activity or event. It is expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide (COR2R), or its equivalent of other emitted GHGs. Choosing an appropriate low-carbon emission method for SE is a vital task and involves environmental concerns due to several energy-consuming activities. Since essentially, every SE impacts the environment, it becomes very important to evaluate this impact and take necessary actions to minimize any negative consequence. The objective of this paper is to present a comprehensive overview on progress acquired over the years in understanding GHG emissions from SE and to discuss the steps in CF estimation. Publications were identified that reported GHG emissions and CF of SE over past 30 years. This literature review suggests that for most of the SE, the material production phase consumes a large amount of energy and is a major contributor of GHG emissions. Early phases of project planning should include appropriate ecological decisions consistent with the life-cycle assessment (LCA) and CF considerations. Pipe material and outside diameter should be considered during the SE to allow a detailed evaluation and reduction of their environmental impacts (EI). Incorporation of additional factors, such as cost and duration of the project into the environmental analysis is also recommended.

Conventional versus modular construction methods: A comparative cradle-to-gate LCA for residential buildings

Traditional on-site and modular off-site methods are the main construction methods in the residential building sector. Regardless of different advantages and disadvantages offered by each of these two construction methods, the overall environmental trade-offs between them are still unclear. This paper applies a cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment (LCA) to benchmark the environmental performance of conventional and modular construction methods. To this end, three single-family buildings (one conventional and two modular) designed and constructed in the Okanagan, British Columbia, Canada, were used as representatives of typical houses built by on-site and off-site methods in the region. The required data such as raw materials, material and workforce transportation, and energy resources was collected from the corresponding homebuilders through a questionnaire survey. Then, the environmental impact measures such as global warming potential were calculated through LCA analyses. Subsequently, the calculated impact measures along with their importance weights were incorporated into an analytic hierarchy process (AHP) based framework to develop a set of environmental impact indices for the material production phase, the construction phase, and summation of these phases (i.e., cradle-to-gate). Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis was performed to eliminate the human subjectivity involved in AHP. Eventually, individual impact measures and also the developed impact indices were compared and contrasted between the benchmarking buildings. The analyses revealed that construction of the first modular building resulted less environmental impacts than the other two buildings. Nevertheless, the lowest environmental performance was due to the second modular building. This disclosed that none of the modular and conventional construction methods is the absolute option for environmentally friendly construction. However, implementation of strategies such as optimal designs and decrease in material and worker transportation of both modular and conventional building projects and increase in annual production of modular manufacturing centers can reduce the material and energy consumption and the subsequent environmental impacts. This paper also provides a basis to create a benchmarking database by adding future LCA studies for new modular and conventional building projects.

Economic input-output life cycle assessment of concrete pavement containing recycled concrete aggregate

Concrete pavement recycling has become a common practice for many states in the U.S. While material properties and structural performance of pavements with virgin concrete aggregates replaced by recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) have been extensively characterized, very little effort has been made to assess potential sustainability benefits of this application. A life cycle assessment to compare an RCA based portland cement concrete (RCA-PCC) pavement and a plain PCC pavement (i.e., without RCA) from all three aspects of sustainability (i.e., economic impact, social impact, and environmental impact) was carried out using an economic input-output life cycle assessment (EIO-LCA) approach. An inventory of stressors during materials production and construction, use, and end-of-life phases of pavement life cycle was obtained, followed by a life cycle impact analysis using the Tool for Reduction and Assessment of Chemicals and other Environmental Impacts (TRACI). Based on the results, the benefits of using RCA during the materials production and construction phase are invariably achieved for all the sustainability categories, but the RCA-PCC pavement would pose higher negative impacts during the use phase of pavement life. Still, the pavement made with RCA-PCC was found to be generally more environmentally and socially friendly compared to the pavement made with virgin aggregates, especially for the TRACI categories of ecotoxicity, human health cancer, and human health non-cancer. The sustainability benefits of using RCA for concrete pavement application will only be magnified with a growing level of environmental awareness, further diminishment of local virgin aggregate sources, and a rapid increase of landfill tipping costs for construction demolition debris in the future.

Environmental performance analysis of insulated composite facade panels using life cycle assessment (LCA)

The construction sector, which accounts for 10% of global economic activity, consumes approximately 40% of the world’s energy and materials. Besides, it accounts for the consumption of 17% of world water resources and 25% of manufactured wood and is responsible for about 50% of greenhouse gas emissions. This situation makes the assessment of the environmental impact of construction materials fundamental. The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology is a scientific method that is used to identify, report and manage the environmental impacts of a product, starting with the acquisition of raw materials, including production, shipment, consumer use, and disposal as waste after use. In this study, environmental effects of 50 mm thick polyurethane and rockwool filled composite facade panels were determined by using LCA method and compared. Hence, the facade panels' cradle-to-gate process (raw material supply, production and disposal phases) were examined. As a result of the study, it is seen that the polyurethane filled composite facade panel has more advantageous environmental performance than the rockwool filled composite facade panel.

Cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment of ships: A case study of Panamax bulk carrier

Seaborne transport plays an important role in global transportation, and ships’ emissions are worth considering. By applying life cycle assessment method, the environmental impacts of ships could be evaluated. Life cycle assessment is an effective tool as this method provides a holistic perspective of a product or a service in its life cycle. In an attempt to clarify emissions released from the cradle-to-gate life cycle of ships, especially from processes in shipbuilding which were not considered adequately from some previous studies, this study conducts life cycle assessment method to assess the environmental impacts of a Panamax bulk carrier from raw material extraction to shipbuilding phase. In order to clarify life cycle emissions, some helpful mathematical formulas are also established. Ten environmental categories of CML 2001 life cycle impact assessment methodology that are relevant to the marine context are chosen for evaluating the environmental impacts. To obtain emission inventory and impact assessment results, a life cycle assessment software— GaBi—has been used. The results show that material extraction and production phase accounts for more than 85% carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, and methane, while shipbuilding phase is responsible for 99.91% volatile organic compounds, 36.08% non-methane organic compounds, and 26.76% particulate matter emissions. In relation to environmental indicators, material consumption is much more significant than other processes and accounts for more than 86% of values of 10 environmental categories. This study is useful as it provides necessary information for life cycle assessment in the shipping industry in the future.

Assessing the life cycle CO2 emissions of reinforced concrete structures: Four cases from China

The large amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from Chinese buildings has caused widespread concern among researchers around the world. A more comprehensive study is needed based on an international perspective as the standards and methods used for estimating emissions have not yet been integrated with international standards. It is necessary to quantify the life cycle emissions from reinforced concrete structures through a variety of actual engineering data and a multi-case empirical study to establish their standard value, in order to promote the rapid development of low-carbon buildings in China.Internationally, reinforced concrete structures are often grouped under six types: schools, hospitals, aerospace, commercial, residential, and prisons. This study examines residential, hospitals, commercial and schools as examples for multiple case studies. Life cycle cost analysis (LCA) principles, multi-case analysis and quantitative studies are combined to assemble a CO2 emission assessment model in SimaPro to evaluate the CO2 emission over the life cycle of a representative sample of reinforced concrete structures in China with the aim of developing proposals for energy-saving emission reductions.The results indicate that steel contributes 40%–53% to global warming and 40%–80% of the total environmental emissions during the construction phase of the buildings analyzed, with energy saving in the building materials production phase, especially steel production. The amount of CO2 emissions is generally 30% more in the use and maintenance phase than the construction phase, reaching even 300% for hospital buildings. By contrast, CO2 emissions during the demolition phase are relatively small, accounting for only 3%–12% of the building's life cycle. In terms of building type, the life-cycle CO2 emissions of hospital buildings are much larger than other types of reinforced concrete structures, reaching 3390 kg CO2 eq/m2.

Developing Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules (PEFCR) for shampoos: The basis for comparable life cycle assessment.

In 2013, the European Commission launched the Environmental Footprint Rules pilot phase. This initiative aims at setting specific rules for life cycle assessment (LCA: raw material sourcing, production, logistics, use, and disposal phase) studies within 1 product category, called product environmental footprint category rules (PEFCR), and for organizations, called organizational environmental footprint sector rules (OEFSR). Such specific rules for measuring environmental performance throughout the life cycle should facilitate the comparability between LCA studies and provide principles for communicating environmental performance, such as transparency, reliability, completeness, and clarity. Cosmetics Europe, the association representing the cosmetics industry in the European Union, completed a voluntary study into the development of PEFCR for shampoo, generally following the guidelines and methodology developed by the European Commission for its own pilot projects. The study assessed the feasibility and relevance of establishing PEFCR for shampoo. Specifically, the study defines a large number of modeling assumptions and default values relevant for shampoo (e.g., for the functional unit, the system boundaries, default transport distances, rinsing water volumes, temperature differences, life cycle inventory data sources) that can be modified as appropriate, according to the specificities of individual products, manufacturing companies, and countries. The results of the study may be used to support internal decision making (e.g., to identify "hotspots" with high environmental impact and opportunities for improvement) or to meet information requests from commercial partners, consumers, media, or authorities on product environmental characteristics. In addition, the shampoo study also highlighted many of the challenges and limitations of the current product environmental footprint (PEF) methodology, namely its complexity and resource intensiveness. It highlighted 2 areas where improvements are much needed: (1) data quality and availability, and (2) impact assessment methodologies and robustness. Many of the findings are applicable to other rinse-off cosmetic products, such as shower gels, liquid soaps, bath products, and hair conditioners. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2018;14:649-659. © 2018 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).

Using different performance measures for the sustainability assessment of asphalt mixtures: case of warm mix asphalt in a hot climate

The study presents a framework for assessing the sustainability of different types of asphalt materials and technologies. The framework is demonstrated through a case study for evaluating the sustainability of warm mix asphalt (WMA) mixtures in hot climatic conditions. While various life-cycle assessment (LCA) tools and methodologies have been used for sustainability assessment of WMA from the material production phase to the construction phase, most neglect the maintenance, rehabilitation and end of life phases, based on the assumption that the performance of WMA is similar to that of hot mix asphalt (HMA). This study examines asphalt mix properties and performance indices, and studies their impact on maintenance and rehabilitation schedules when incorporated in a pavement structure, and subsequently life-cycle environmental and economic costs. The study concludes that the assessment outcomes of the LCA and life-cycle cost analysis are heavily affected by the performance measure used to predict the maintenance and rehabilitation schedule or change in service life. For the conditions assumed in the study, WMA mixes yield more favourable environmental and economic results compared to control HMA mixes with unmodified binder.