Material Flow Analysis Method Research Articles

Construction and Optimization Strategies for Rural Residential Spatial Models Based on the Concept of Resource Metabolism: A Case Study of Rural Areas in the Shandong Plain

Rural communities can be conceptualized as spatial organisms interconnected by optimized resource utilization systems. Investigating the efficient utilization of rural resources and spatial construction methods grounded in resource metabolism is a pivotal step toward achieving the ecological transformation of rural spaces. This paper examined rural settlements in the Shandong Plain as a case study, exploring the relationships among three scales: village, neighborhoods, and courtyards. This analysis was based on elucidating the interaction mechanisms between “space and resource” and the integration of key resources and spatial elements. From the perspective of resource circulation and metabolism, this study aimed to elucidate the equilibrium of each resource element within three resource metabolism subsystems: the agricultural production system (core element), the ecological technology system (technological link), and the human life system (spatial carrier) in Shandong Plain’s villages, considering general climatic conditions. To achieve this, this research utilized the resource production volume, the utilization and transformation volume of resource metabolism technology facilities per unit area, and the average per capita resource consumption as fundamental measurement units. The concept of a rationing relationship is introduced to clarify resource allocation. Combining the aforementioned research on spatial resource metabolism in ecological villages in Shandong Province with the material flow analysis method, this study constructed a bottom–up spatial model of resource metabolism at three scales, courtyards, neighborhoods, and villages, under various resource metabolism scenarios. This study is anticipated to significantly contribute to the theoretical understanding of rural habitat environments, offering novel methods and perspectives for constructing ecological rural settlements.

Environmental impacts of lithium supply chains from Australia to China

Abstract Lithium (Li) has been widely recognized as an essential metal for clean technologies. However, the environmental impacts and emission reduction pathways of the lithium supply chain haven’t been clearly investigated, especially between Australia and China, where most lithium ore are mined and produced. This study analyzed and compared the environmental and human health implications of six key cross-border Li supply chains from Australia to China through material flow analysis (MFA) and life cycle assessment (LCA) methods. Key findings include: (1) approximately 30% of total Li extraction is lost in the beneficiation stage due to low recovery rates; (2) the Cattlin-Yaan routes exhibit superior environmental and human health performances than other routes attributed to lower diesel consumption, reduced electricity use, and a high chemical conversion rate; (3) the Wodgina production routes have a higher carbon footprint mainly due to low ore grade and significant diesel consumption; (4) the dominant environmental implications in the supply chain are associated with refining battery-grade lithium carbonate, driven by energy use (electricity, coal and natural gas), sulfuric acid, soda ash, and sodium hydroxide. In addition, lithium carbonate refining has the highest water consumption. Overall, the analysis highlights opportunities to improve environmental performance, advance data-poor environmental assessments, and provide insights into sustainable Li extraction.

Uncovering the key features of iron metabolism in Pakistan from 2005 to 2020: A dynamic material flow analysis

Iron is a crucial metal for Pakistan's growth, especially in its infrastructure and industrial sectors. However, the key features of iron metabolism are still unclear in this country, which makes it difficult to prepare appropriate iron management policies. In order to fill this knowledge gap, we employ a dynamic material flow analysis method to uncover the key features of iron metabolism in Pakistan for the period of 2005–2020. The result shows that a total of 2.057 Mt of iron ore was extracted during this study period. Pakistan heavily relied on importing iron resources to meet its demand, mainly from China (13.14 %), Japan (6.86 %), the United Arab Emirates (6.24 %), and the United Kingdom (6.27 %). Meanwhile, China (43.5 %) and the United Arab Emirates (19.82 %) are the top two buyers of Pakistan's iron-related products. In addition, our results indicate that iron recycling was insufficient in Pakistan, with a recycling rate of only 15 %. Finally, several policy recommendations are proposed by considering the Pakistan's reality in order to enhance the overall iron resource efficiency.

Strategies for effective reuse of waste from abandoned buildings under sustainable development

Introduction: In the continuous advancement of urbanization, abandoned buildings are a huge challenge in achieving sustainable development goals. If these legacy buildings are not properly handled, they will cause a huge burden on society, economy, and the environment. Based on the material flow analysis method, an evaluation index system was constructed for legacy building resources, and a systematic study was conducted on the reuse pathways of their waste.Methods: This study focuses on the material flow, reuse pathways, and resource utilization strategies of legacy construction waste, aiming to improve the reuse efficiency of waste building materials and promote the achievement of sustainable development goals. In the study, indicator design was used to quantify the obstacles to the reuse of legacy construction waste, and social and economic costs were analyzed to ensure the comprehensiveness and scientificity of the research.Results: The experimental results show that the waste recycling rate under the implementation of this strategy reached 82.7%, and the resource utilization rate increased by 50.1%. For the obstacles to the reuse of construction waste, the network density reaches 0.052, and the overall network structure shows a lack of concentration, indicating that the current management methods for construction waste reuse have further optimization space.Discussion: The study effectively promotes the sustainable utilization of legacy buildings in cities, which is of great significance for improving the quality of urban space and promoting sustainable social development.

Research on copper flow and environmental load in China's new infrastructure industry for carbon neutrality

With the rapid development of new infrastructure in China, the demand for copper has increased significantly. In 2021, copper consumption in this sector accounted for 9.1% of China's total consumption, becoming a new driving force for copper demand. This study analyzed copper flow characteristics and primary driving factors in China's new infrastructure sectors using the material flow analysis method, quantified the environmental loads of the metabolic processes, and predicted copper demand in the new infrastructure sectors by 2030 through scenario analysis. The primary conclusions drawn are as follows: In 2021, copper consumption in new infrastructure sectors was 1,225,700 tons, with the rail transportation sector accounting for 59.6% and the artificial intelligence sector accounting for 0.6%. The rail transportation sector had the largest total environmental load, with carbon emissions of approximately 3,513,372 tons. From the perspective of tons of copper products, the 5G sector had the highest environmental load, while the big data centers had the lowest. In the seven sectors of new infrastructure, the environmental load contribution rates across the four stages showed little variation, with their proportions being 49.0, 29.8, 15.8, and 5.4%, respectively. Recycling of discarded copper products can effectively reduce industrial energy consumption and carbon emissions. Under the three scenarios set in this study, the copper demand in the new infrastructure sector by 2030 will be 3.856, 3.233, and 2.625 million tons, respectively. Using wind energy to replace coal in copper production can reduce carbon emissions by approximately 43.2%.

Tracking the global anthropogenic gallium cycle during 2000–2020: A trade-linked multiregional material flow analysis

Byproduct metals are essential to global low carbon transition since they are irreplaceable in modern renewable energy technologies. Gallium (Ga) is classified as one critical byproduct metal due to its extensive use in electronic applications and low carbon technologies, as well as its limited resource endowment. It is urgent to uncover the global and regional Ga stocks and flows so that the potential supply risks can be mitigated. This study maps the global and regional Ga cycles for the period of 2000–2020 by employing a trade-linked multiregional material flow analysis (MFA) method. Our results show that 79% of the global Ga co-mined from bauxite ended up in red mud or entered the aluminum cycle as an impurity, indicating a significant recycling potential. Different involved regions have different but complementary roles in the global Ga supply chain. China dominates the global primary Ga production, accounting for 97% of the global total in 2020. Japan and the United States are key players in high-purity Ga refining and rely on Ga to support their electronic devices manufacturing. Unfortunately, Ga recycling practices are still not occurring due to the low Ga concentrations in major applications. Since the global demand for Ga will continue to grow in the near future, it is urgent to initiate collaborative efforts so that Ga recycling can be enhanced. These efforts are critical to ensure the sustainable Ga supply and facilitate the global transition toward low carbon development.

Phosphorus flow characteristics in the waste system of Poyang Lake Watershed over the past 70 years

With the intensification of human activities, the amount of phosphorus (P)-containing waste has increased. When such waste is not recycled, P is released into the environment, leading to environmental issues such as the eutrophication of water bodies. In this study, based on the material flow analysis method, a P Waste Flow analysis model (P-WFA) was developed to analyze the P flow in the waste system of Poyang Lake, the largest freshwater lake in China. To address the research gap in long-term P flow analysis at the watershed scale, this study quantified the P content in the waste system of the Poyang Lake Watershed from 1950 to 2020. The analysis revealed that from 1950 to 2020, the total P input into the waste system increased from 5.49 × 104 tons in 1950 to 2.28 × 105 tons in 2020. The breeding industry system was identified as the primary source, accounting for 25.19–41.59 % of the total waste system. Over the past 70 years, P loss to surface water from waste systems has been primarily facilitated by manure from the breeding industry, as well as drainage from crop farming systems (77.74 % in 2020). At the same time, the P recycling rate (PRR) of the waste system exhibited an initial increase followed by a decrease, increasing from 44.14 % to 47.75 % before dropping to 44.41 %. Population growth, urbanization, and changes in consumption levels in Jiangxi Province have led to changes in the dietary structure and fertilizer use, consequently affecting the P cycling pattern. This study presents a comprehensive P flow model for waste systems in the Poyang Lake Watershed. This model can be used as a reference to enhance P cycling and manage P loss in other large freshwater lakes.

Efficiency Characteristics and Evolution Patterns of Urban Carbon Metabolism of Production-Living-Ecological Space in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region

This study explored the carbon metabolism efficiency of a production-living-ecological space system, which is of great significance for regional factor integration and spatial optimization. In this study, the material flow analysis method was introduced to establish a framework for evaluating the carbon metabolism efficiency of the production-living-ecological space system, and the super-efficiency DEA model and Malmquist index were used to empirically analyze the spatio-temporal distribution, dynamic change, and evolution patterns of the carbon metabolism efficiency of production-living-ecological space in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region, China, from 2000 to 2020 on the basis of the urban metabolic perspective. The results showed that:① the carbon metabolism efficiency of the production-living-ecological space showed a fluctuating growth trend, indicating the significant spatial differentiation of carbon metabolism efficiency in each city. There was a low overall carbon metabolism efficiency level, with a distribution pattern of being high in the middle and low in the north and south. ② The Malmquist index showed that the Total Factor Productivity (TFP) of carbon metabolism efficiency was greater than 1, and both the Technical Change (TC) and Pure Efficiency Change (PEC) were less than 1, in which the TFP showed an increasing trend, whereas there was no significant contribution of technological progress or pure technical efficiency to carbon metabolism efficiency. The total factor productivity of more than 50% of the cities showed an improving trend, only 38.46% of which made technological progress in improving carbon metabolism efficiency, and more than half of the urban pure technical efficiency showed a decreasing trend, in which the technical efficiency change and scale efficiency change were greater than 1 in most cities. ③ There were different types of carbon efficiency characteristics in each city, and according to the movement rules of the corresponding points in the quartile map, the evolution patterns of tourism industry efficiency were classified into stable, reciprocating, progressive, and abrupt. Therefore, local governments should adopt differentiated strategies to reasonably allocate spatial resources of production-living-ecological space and improve the technical level and scale efficiency, so as to improve the efficiency of urban carbon metabolism.

Mapping the evolution of manganese flows and stocks in China from 2000 to 2021

Manganese is a strategic metal that has been widely applied in the steelmaking industry and the emerging energy batteries industry. China is the largest manganese importer and consumer, but the critical features of its manganese metabolisms, including its supply and demand, trade, and waste management, remain unclear. By applying dynamic material flow analysis (DMFA) method, this research investigates the evolution of China’s anthropogenic manganese flows and stocks during the period of 2000 to 2021. We found that the demand for manganese had increased almost tenfold in China from 2000 to 2021, mainly used for steelmaking, while the surging demand for manganese in energy batteries had gradually increased. However, China highly relied on importing manganese concentrates due to its limited manganese resources. The cumulative in-use manganese stocks also increased by tenfold and reached approximately 168 million tons (Mt). In addition, manganese flow from the end-of-life (EoL) final products reached 12 Mt in 2021, but few of them were recycled, implying a huge recycling potential. These findings provide valuable insights to prepare more appropriate manganese resource management policies, such as improving domestic mining technologies, enhancing manganese recycling, and diversifying the supply of manganese resources, so that the overall manganese resource efficiency can be improved.

Assessing the Ecological Cost of Material Flow in China’s Waste Paper Recycling System

This article introduces the concept of ecological costs associated with the waste paper recycling system. The costs associated with this process include resource consumption, waste emissions, ecological damage, and production processes. To analyze the ecological costs of deviations from the baseline material flow in a waste paper recycling system, a benchmark material flow diagram is constructed using the material flow analysis method. The diagram illustrates a fully closed one-way material flow of the recycling system, which is highly abstracted and simplified. The study analyzed the ecological costs of the benchmark material flow and the impact of deviations from it. The results suggest that the circulation of materials within and between processes increases the ecological cost of the waste paper recycling system. Furthermore, the release of materials from a process into the environment also contributes to its ecological impact. However, the introduction of external materials into the recycling system can reduce its ecological impact, particularly if these materials are recycled resources. The study emphasizes the significance of considering ecological costs in waste paper recycling systems to minimize their environmental impact.

Revealing cradle-to-gate CO2 emissions for steel product producing by different technological pathways based on material flow analysis

Revealing the life-cycle CO2 emissions of steel products is of great significance for mitigating CO2 emissions. However, previous studies did not conduct comparative analysis for steel products produced by different technological pathways, resulting in considerable confusion in the setting of carbon reduction pathways. By using the material flow analysis method, this study revealed the life-cycle CO2 emissions associated with various technological pathways. The results shows that life-cycle CO2 emissions per metric ton of steel are: 3620.78 kg for shaft furnace (SF)-electric furnace (EF) routes, 2598.54 kg for blast furnace (BF)- basic oxygen furnace (BOF), 1868.16 kg for Scrap & Molten Iron-EF and 1330.22 kg for scrap-EF. The energy structure (e.g. coal blending mode, power generation mode) material structure (e.g. iron ore matching mode, matching mode of scrap and molten iron), and transportation mode have a significant impact on CO2 emissions. Undoubtedly, low-carbon or zero-carbon electricity is more effective in reducing CO2 emissions.

Decreasing resilience of China's coupled nitrogen-phosphorus cycling network requires urgent action.

The coupled nature of the nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) cycling networks is of critical importance for sustainable food systems. Here we use material flow and ecological network analysis methods to map the N-P-coupled cycling network in China and evaluate its resilience. Results show a drop in resilience between 1980 and 2020, with further decreases expected by 2060 across different socio-economic pathways. Under a clean energy scenario with additional N and P demand, the resilience of the N-P-coupled cycling network would suffer considerably, especially in the N layer. China's socio-economic system may also see greater N emissions to the environment, thus disturbing the N cycle and amplifying the conflict between energy and food systems given the scarcity of P. Our findings on scenario-specific synergies and trade-offs can aid the management of N- and P-cycling networks in China by reducing chemical fertilizer use and food waste, for example.

Regulation Mechanism for Designing Decarbonization Pathways in the Copper Industry Toward Carbon Neutrality.

The transformation of the global power structure caused by the carbon neutrality goal will promote copper consumption. It is crucial to explore the decarbonization pathways of the copper industry to help fulfill greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction targets. This study utilized material flow analysis and life cycle assessment methods to investigate 12 different subscenarios based on international trade, circular economy, technology evolution, and environmental market factors. Policy combination scenario is employed to reveal the mechanism of decarbonization. The results show that refined copper consumption in China is expected to increase by 62.3% in 2060 compared to 2020. The GHG emissions of China's copper industry will reach 9.1 million tonnes (Mt) CO2e in 2060, technology evolution and environmental market are crucial for realizing carbon neutrality goal of this industry, accounting for 26.4 and 47.2% of emissions reductions, respectively, between 2020 and 2060. International trade and circular economy play important roles in the high-quality carbon peaking stage; however, imported copper and domestic secondary copper will constitute the basic supply of copper resources in China in the long run, and the comparative advantages of them will gradually weaken. Policy combination scenario can achieve the incentive synergy effect, with GHG reduced to 0.5 Mt CO2e in 2060. The enhanced application of policies such as material substitution and carbon emission trading will further promote industry to achieve net-zero GHG emission. We suggest regulating the industry's structure based on the international systemic circulation pattern and accelerating the construction of a green circular chain in the short term to achieve sustainable copper supply and high-quality carbon peaking. Promoting a high-quality technology development strategy and enhancing the environmental markets are recommended in the long term to achieve carbon neutrality.

Tracking the evolution of niobium cycle in China from 2000 to 2021: A dynamic material flow analysis

Niobium has been classified as one critical metal due to its wide applications in both fundamental and strategic industries. However, niobium resource is limited and unevenly distributed. China is the biggest niobium consumer and the demand for niobium will continue to increase due to its rapid urbanization and industrial development. This study aims to uncover the key features of niobium metabolism in China during 2000–2021 by employing a dynamic material flow analysis method. Our results show that both niobium flows and stocks experienced fast growth in China and the domestic demand for finished niobium products was highly concentrated. Moreover, China mainly relied on importing primary niobium resources from Brazil and Canada, while exporting semi-finished niobium products to Korea, Vietnam, Indonesia, and India. Several policies are then proposed by considering the Chinese realities to improve the utilization efficiency of niobium resources and secure its sustainable supply.

Incorporating biochar into fuels system of iron and steel industry: carbon emission reduction potential and economic analysis

Biochar as a prospective renewable energy candidate could be incorporated into the iron and steel production system to replace part of fossil fuels and reduce high-intensity greenhouse gas emissions. However, great uncertainties still exist on biochar's emission reduction capacity and economic feasibility, depending on different biochar precursors, substitution scenarios, energy consumption of biochar production and financial cost. This study aimed to explore the optimized substitution strategies concerning the above issues. A systematic carbon accounting was performed by material flow analysis method (MFA). Two biochar incorporated iron and steel production routes, integrated production route (BF-BOF) and short production route (EAF), which took the proportion of 71.5% and 28.2% in worldwide production, were considered. CO2 Supply Curve (CSC) was conducted to carry out a quantitative economic viability analysis of biochar substitution under carbon emission trading schemes (ETS). Results showed that compared with straw-based biochar, wood-based biochar showed stronger carbon reduction capacity of 1.47 t CO2e (CO2-equivalent) /t crude steel, and the reduction potential reached 66.94% mostly. Among all the steel production processes, Blast furnace in BF-BOF route had the largest emission contribution proportion (72.06%), achieving the best GWP100 reduction potential of 73.66%. The incorporation of wood-based biochar in sintering (−0.037 yuan/t CO2e) was selected as the scenario with both reduction potential and economic viability. If the scenario was fully implemented in China, it could reduce 2.01 million tons of CO2e in 2021. This study would play a vital role in guiding iron and steel industry for biochar substituted fuels.

Perancangan Sistem Pengelolaan Sampah dengan Metode Material Flow Analysis (MFA) (Studi Kasus: Kota Tasikmalaya)

This study concerns the design of a waste management system using the Material Flow Analysis (MFA) method in the city of Tasikmalaya. TPA Ciangir is the only landfill in Tasikmalaya, and its storage capacity has reached its maximum, necessitating improvements in waste management. The aim of this design is to determine an appropriate waste management system that can be implemented in Tasikmalaya. Based on observations and interviews, waste collection at TPA Ciangir in Tasikmalaya is conducted in small amounts, leading to a significant amount of household waste not being collected daily, resulting in waste accumulation and minimal transport to waste processing facilities. According to Permen PU Number 3 of 2013 and SNI 19-2454-2002, waste collection from the source should be conducted at least once every two days. Therefore, an evaluation and redesign of the waste management system based on technical aspects are needed. The best system selection will be carried out using the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method, which will then be recommended for application at TPA Ciangir in Tasikmalaya. Based on the calculations using the AHP method, scenario 3 scored the highest, at 1.676, using composting processes, RDF, and TPST-3R. From the design results, a total waste reduction of 81% was achieved, aligning with the government's target of a 70% waste reduction by 2020.

Insight into Municipal Reactive Nitrogen Emissions and Their Influencing Factors: A Case Study of Xiamen City, China

Reactive nitrogen (Nr) has been confirmed as an indispensable nutrient for the city ecosystem, but high-intensity human activities have led to nitrogen pollution in cities, especially in coastal cities, jeopardizing ecosystem services and human health. Despite this, the characteristics and influencing factors of Nr remain unclear in coastal cities, particularly in the context of rapid urbanization. This study used the material flow analysis method to estimate Nr emissions in Xiamen from 1995 to 2018 and evaluated the characteristics of excessive Nr emissions. The STIRPAT model was used to identify and explore factors contributing to observed Nr levels in coastal cities. As indicated by the results, (1) the quantity of Nr generated by human activities increased 3.5 times from 1995 to 2018. Specifically, the total Nr entering the water environment showed a general increase with fluctuations, exhibiting an average annual growth rate of 3.1%, increasing from 17.2 Gg to 35.1 Gg. (2) Nr loads in the nearby sea increased notably from 8.1 Gg in 1995 to 25.4 Gg in 2018, suggesting a threefold augmentation compared with surface waters and groundwater. (3) NOx was the gaseous Nr with the greatest effect on the atmosphere in Xiamen, which was primarily due to fossil fuel consumption. (4) Population and per capita GDP were major factors contributing to Nr load in the water environment, while Nr emission to the atmosphere was influenced by population and energy consumption. These findings provide valuable insights for tailored approaches to sustainable nitrogen management in coastal cities.

Puebla City Water Supply from the Perspective of Urban Water Metabolism

The city of Puebla is a mid-sized Mexican city facing multiple water-related challenges, from overexploitation of water sources and extreme pollution of rivers to water conflicts and contestation processes due to the privatization of water supply. Due to the complexity of urban water systems and their relevance for urban life, a holistic and integrative perspective is therefore needed to inform policymakers addressing such challenges. In this paper, Urban Water Metabolism (UWM) has been used to offer a comprehensive understanding of current water insecurity in the City of Puebla and its metropolitan area. Water inflows and outflows have been estimated using the Material Flow Analysis (MFA) method with data either obtained from official sources or simulated with the Monte Carlo method. Our findings show that the UWM configuration in the City of Puebla and its metropolitan area is effective for generating profits for service providers and water-related businesses, yet ineffective for guaranteeing citizens’ Human Right to Water and Sanitation (HRWS), a right recognized in the Constitution of Mexico. We conclude that to advance towards an inclusive and sustainable long-term provision of water, economic goals must follow socio-ecological goals, not the other way around. We consider UWM accounting useful for informing policy and decision-making processes seeking to build a new water governance based on both the best available knowledge and inclusive and vibrant social participation.

Material flow analysis on the critical resources from spent power lithium-ion batteries under the framework of China's recycling policies

With the rapid growth of electric vehicles in China, the number of spent power lithium-ion batteries is dramatically increased. Considering the environmental risk, security risk, and potential resource value, China has issued a series of laws and regulations to manage the spent power lithium-ion batteries. This work employs the material flow analysis method to evaluate the material flows of Li, Ni, Co, and Mn during the life cycle of power lithium-ion batteries under the framework of China's recycling policy system. The results show that the demand for primary Li, Ni, Co, and Mn can achieve 26.9, 68.1, 20.4, and 21.9 kt in 2021, and a lot of primary critical resources will inburst the in-use stage. Moreover, the number of secondary Li, Ni, Co, and Mn can achieve 6.1, 15.4, 4.6, and 5 kt in 2021, accounting for 22.7%, 22.6%, 22.5%, and 22.8% of their corresponding demand. Based on the economic evaluation under the framework of China's recycling policy system, it is found that the potential recycling values of Li, Ni, Co, and Mn are approximately 966, 523, 414, and 43 million RMB yuan, which are 66.4%, 71%, 59.6%, and 66.4% higher than those in the absence of China's recycling policy system. It is implied that China's recycling policy system could markedly improve the collection rate by reducing losses and indirectly enhancing the recycling and reuse of spent power lithium-ion batteries. This work is expected to provide guidance for policymakers to improve the management of spent power lithium-ion batteries in China.

Dynamic material flow analysis of rhenium in China for 2011–2020

Rhenium (Re) is one rare and heavy metal element that plays an important role in various fields, such as aerospace applications, petroleum industry, and power generation. However, less attention has been paid to its metabolism patterns. This study employs a dynamic material flow analysis method to investigate the anthropogenic Re cycle in China from 2011 to 2020. The results show that the annual demand for Re had increased from 7.02 tons to 10.41 tons during the study period, in which 44.91% of the total Re was used to produce petro-reforming catalysts and 32.87% of the total Re was used to make aero-engines. A total of 54.94 tons of Re became in-use stock and 18.55 tons were discarded. A significant Re loss (55.92 tons) was generated in the refining and separation stage, mainly due to cost and technological constraints. On the supply side, the domestic primary Re production remained stable in China, but unable to meet the market demand. Therefore, China has to rely on importing Re products, with a net import reliance (NIR) of more than 75% in recent years. The imported Re had increased from 8.68 tons in 2011 to 18.99 tons in 2020. About 85.4% of the imported final products were aero-engines. By identifying several problems hindering the sustainable use of Re in China, we proposed several policy recommendations to improve the overall Re resource efficiency, such as policy and economic supports for Re recycling, enhancing Re's production and utilization technologies, and strengthening Re supply resilience.