Masurian Lake District Research Articles

Fibulae in the Form of Overlays in the Archeology of the Western Balts of the Merovingian Age

The article is devoted to a unique phenomenon in the archeology of the Baltics – Aestii and Prussian brooches imitating belt linings and details of a horse headband. They date from the early 5th – early 8th century AD. According to its shape, these brooches are divided into two variants. Fibulae var. 1 of the early phase of the era of the Great Migration of Peoples are associated with the Aestii of Sambia on the threshold of the emergence of the Prussian archaeological culture, and the clasps of var. 2 came out of the workshops of the western part of the Masurian Lake District in the final phase of the mentioned era. The sizes and shapes of the studied brooches directly point to their prototypes: linings of various accessories. By searching for such analogies, the origin and dating of brooches-overlays obtained as a result of excavations of burial grounds on the western outskirts of the Baltic world is clarified. The brooches of both of the aforementioned variants, belonging to the bearers of the cultures of various Western Baltic tribes, were made over the course of three centuries (with interruptions). Fasteners var. 1 were included in male and female burial complexes. Fasteners var. 2 belonged exclusively to male complexes. The social affiliation of the owners of brooches var. 2 can be defined as members (or relatives) of a squad group. It was professional warriors who had luxurious horse headbands with fours, imitating the Frankish models of the Merovingian era. A similar phenomenon was noted on the example of women’s pendants with retinue symbols in Eastern European antiquities of the Viking Age, which was not previously noted in Russian archeology.

Nowe dane do rozmieszczenia Thamnobryum neckeroides (Neckeraceae, Bryophyta) w Polsce

Thamnobryum neckeroides (Hook.) E.Lawton (Fig. 1) is one of the rarest mosses in Poland. So far its localities were known from the Carpathians (Pieniny, Silesian Beskid, Sądecki Beskid and Beskid Niski) and the Masurian Lake District. In 2023, two more localities were discovered in Western Pomerania. The paper contains a description of the new localities and comments on occurrence of T. neckeroides in Poland. Currently, this species is known from 9 localities located in 7 ATMOS squares (Fig. 2).

A unique funerary and ritual complex at the border zone of the Northern and Eastern European Plains as a record of cultural and social changes at the turn of the Neolithic and Bronze Age

In the 3rd millennium BC, the area of the Masurian Lake District, located at the border zone of the North and Eastern European Plains, was still dominated by hunter-gatherers. It was then that the Late Neolithic farming and pastoralist communities reached the region, where cultural and social changes were initiated. Tracing these changes is possible through an analysis of the unique funerary and ritual complex on the island of Lake Lanskie. Burials of representatives of the elites of rankingcommunities from the Late Neolithic were found there, as well as the discontinuation of such burials in the Early Bronze Age, which has already been associated with egalitarian communities.

Parasitic Arthropods of Soricinae Shrews in North-Eastern Poland.

The study of the ectoparasite fauna of the insectivores-Sorex araneus, Sorex minutus, Neomys fodiens, and Neomys anomalus (subfamily Soricinae)-was carried out in three locations in Poland: Białowieża National Park, Kosewo Górne in the Masurian Lake District, and in vicinity of Warsaw. Three species of Ixodidae ticks, eleven species of fleas, and four species of mites from the order Mesostigmata were noted. The most numerous ectoparasites are ticks Ixodes ricinus (larvae), Dermacentor reticulatus (nymphs), and fleas Palaeopsylla soricis, Megabothris walkeri, and Hystrichopsylla orientalis. These species show the highest prevalence and show the highest dominance index. The parasitofauna of S. araneus is much richer in species than other shrew species. The structure and dominance of parasite assemblages differ between locations.

Small Recreational Boat Detection Using Sentinel-1 Data for the Monitoring of Recreational Ecosystem Services

Recreational ecosystem services are crucial for human well-being, and nature-based recreational activities often support local economies. However, tourism is very often one of many threads that contribute to the environment, and, therefore, data regarding its spatial patterns are necessary for the long-term sustainable development of a region. The present study describes a method for the detection of small boats (<10 m in length) in lake conditions based on Sentinel-1 radar images. Our two-step algorithm uses adaptive thresholding and math morphology operators to extract boat detections. The algorithm was validated on 14 images of different types of lakes in the Great Masurian Lake District, Poland. The detection accuracy was 88.17%. We also assessed the spatial and temporal distribution of tourist traffic and compared satellite data to field data. The correlation between the satellite-based map and field observations was 0.76.

Possibilities of Improving Water Quality of Degraded Lake Affected by Nutrient Overloading from Agricultural Sources by the Multi-Point Aeration Technique

This research concerns the restoration of the strongly eutrophied Lake Łajskie (Masurian Lake District, Poland) that received pollutants from the agricultural catchment. It is a shallow (max depth 7.4 m) and small (area 48 ha) reservoir with a wide profundal zone characterized by complete deoxidation in summer. Due to its important natural and social role, the lake has undergone a restoration process. Artificial oxygenation is the main method of improving water quality. Due to unfavorable morphometric conditions, the necessity to use multi-point aeration was assumed. An experimental installation based on eight reactors selectively oxygenating only the over-bottom waters was launched in 2019. In 2021, spatial studies of the effectiveness of aerators’ work were carried out at 96 measuring points grouped into 12-test fields around each reactor. The investigations were performed three times during the summer season. It was shown that, in the water of the deepest layers of Lake Łajskie, the oxygen concentration around all reactors increased to an average level of 1–2 mg L−1. The oxygenation efficiency was varied and related to the distance from the aerator and the location in relation to the direction of oxygenated water outflow. The results of the research indicate the legitimacy of designing multi-point oxygenation systems in the restoration of waterbodies degraded as a result of the impact of agriculturally transformed catchments.

A cloud-to-ground lightning density due to progressing climate change in Poland

This research focuses on the climatology of cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning flashes based on PERUN lightning detection network managed by IMGW-PIB (Institute of Meteorology and Water Management – National Research Institute) during period 2002 to 2020. To present statistical data converted from raw lightning data, a grid cell with dimensions of 10 km × 10 km was used in order to standardize the results and refer to research conducted in other countries. As a result of the research, it can be concluded that the PERUN system detected 8,626,200 CG flashes during the 18-year period under study. Lightning data were used to determine the spatial distribution of CG flashes, number of thunderstorm days, the annual distribution or the hours of lightning occurrence. The average annual value of CG flashes varies from 0,5 to 3,5 flashes km−2·yr−1. The highest electrical activity occurs in central Poland (Mazovian Lowland) and the lowest in the Pomeranian Lake District. As a result of the research, it is possible to identify a storm trail that begins near Kraków-Częstochowa Upland and ends at the Masurian Lake District. The month with the highest electrical activity in Poland is July, while the highest electrical activity of thunderstorms occurred in 2017. Positive current flashes accounted for 4% of all detected CG flashes, with the greatest activity in June but since 2015, there has been visible increasing activity of thunderstorms carrying CG's with positive current. As a result of the analysis, it was also possible to identify a growing tendency of CG flashes in the area of whole country.

Historical and cultural significance of the Krutynia River (Masuria, Poland)

ABSTRACT Among the rivers flowing through East Prussia the longest one is the Pregola, whereas Lyna and Krutynia, which are shorter, are significant for the Masurian Lake District. The 99 km-long Krutynia river flows through the Piska Wilderness and the Masurian Landscape Park. The canoe trail is considered as the most beautiful in all of Poland. This text, however, discusses not the natural values, but the historical and cultural values of Masuria, i.e. the area through which the river flows. For centuries, this area had been inhabited by various national and ethnical groups. The oldest residents — Old Prussians — founded their settlements here. Afterwards, until 1945, this area was under the rule of the Prussian state. At that time, hydraulic engineering monuments were created — sluices, dams, mills. Some of them are still operational. The last seventy-seven years passed under Polish administration. The Krutynia became a tourist attraction at that time. In the vicinity of the Krutynia river one can observe captivating cultural heritage visible on the route: antique wooden cottages, a few manor-houses, or the memory of figures known in Masuria. For centuries, the river gave work, food and was a communication route for the local people. Today it is one of the tourist symbols of Masuria.

Quality of Bottom Sediments of Sołtmany Lake (Masurian Lake District, Poland) in the Light of Geochemical and Ecotoxicological Criteria—Case Study

The quality of bottom sediment is important for the condition of aquatic environments. High levels of potentially harmful components in sediments negatively affect the quality of surface water environments. Lake bottom sediments are commonly used to control the quality of the environment in terms of both heavy metals and harmful organic compounds. This paper presents new data on the compositions of bottom sediments from Sołtmany Lake, located in the Masurian Lake District (Poland). The aim of this study was to determine the physicochemical properties of bottom sediments and to assess their quality based on geochemical and ecotoxicological criteria. The field study was conducted in July 2021. Thirty sediment samples were collected for analysis from six study sites located in the upper central and lower part of the reservoir. Contamination of the bottom sediments with trace metals was determined on the basis of the geoaccumulation index (Igeo), while an ecological risk assessment was carried out on the basis of calculated values of TEC (Threshold Effect Concentration) and PEC (Probable Effect Concentration) indices. The study shows that the concentration of trace metals in sediments was characterised by slight variation and that the maximum values did not exceed: 1.1 mg·kg−1 for Cd, 8.7 mg·kg−1 for Cr, 10.9 mg·kg−1 for Cu, 7.7 mg·kg−1 for Ni, 12.9 mg·kg−1 for Pb and 52.3 mg·kg−1 for Zn. The analyses further showed that the concentration of trace elements in the sediment surface layer increased in the following order: Zn > Pb > Cu > Ni > Cr > Cd. The maximum pH value of H2O was 7.1, while that of KCl was 7.0. The maximum values of Corg, Ntot, P2O5, K2O and Mg were, respectively: 6.1 g·kg−1, 1.4 g·kg−1, 40.2 mg·100 g−1, 31.2 mg·100 g−1 and 35.1 mg·100 g−1. The assessment of the degree of lake pollution is essential for the conservation of biodiversity and the organisation of environmental management activities.

Bell Beakers in the Masurian Lake District in north-eastern Poland – relics and identification issues

Abstract Until the beginning of the 21st century it was believed that the north-eastern border of Bell Beaker influence reaches the Vistula River basin. Recent discoveries in the North Podlachian Lowland provided grounds for verification of this belief, particularly with regards to the Masurian Lake District, which used to be considered as a territory of intensive activity of the Iwno Culture – a propagator of Bell Beaker influence in this part of Europe. This verification included materials of the highest diagnostic value – pottery and flint artefacts from two best-researched sites in this area: Ząbie X and Szestno II. As a result, fragments of pottery vessels and flint artefacts which can be conclusively associated with Bell Beakers were identified and their analyses revealed that these objects were not connected with the local Iwno Culture, but rather resembled both the materials recently unearthed in the North Podlachian Lowland and corresponding materials from the area of the Atlantic coast. This might mean that people carrying the Bell Beaker cultural package reached the area of the Masurian Lake District and North Podlachian Lowland in the Late Neolithic.

Perfluoroalkyl Substance Contamination Levels of Pike (Esox lucius L.) and Roach (Rutilus rutilus L.) from Selected Masurian Lakes in Eastern Europe.

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are of increased concern because of their bioaccumulation in humans and the biota, the health risk they pose to humans and other animals, and their persistence in the environment. In the present study, the occurrence of PFAS in selected tissues from pike (Esox lucius L.) and roach (Rutilus rutilus L.) collected from two lakes in the Masurian Lake District (Poland) in eastern Europe was addressed. Ten PFAS were analyzed in the tissue of the brain, liver, kidneys, gonads, and muscles by micro-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Only perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid, and perfluorodecanoic acid were detected above the limit of quantification. Concentrations in pike and roach from Ełckie Lake and Hańcza Lake were estimated to be 14/27 and 4.4/3.2 ng/g wet weight, respectively. The contributions of PFOS and PFOA to the sum of PFAS calculated for particular tissues for each fish species were higher than those of the other analyzed compounds: PFOS was found to be predominant in fish from Ełckie Lake, whereas PFOA predominated in fish from Hańcza Lake. It was noted that PFAS concentrations in tissues declined in the following order: kidney > gonads ≈ brain > liver > muscle. The sum of the greatest estimated PFAS concentration was 9.7 ng/g wet weight in kidneys of pike collected from Hańcza Lake. No correlation was noted between PFAS concentration and fish size. The information provided in our study gives a better understanding of the potential dependencies in PFAS distribution and accumulation in biota. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:3317-3327. © 2021 SETAC.

Aquatic tardigrades in Poland – a review

Abstract The diversity, distribution and ecology of aquatic Tardigrada in Poland remain poorly known. We reviewed the literature focused on tardigrades in Poland and recognized only 15 aquatic taxa which were reported from various freshwater and marine habitats. Among them, 12 are freshwater and three are marine taxa. Hypsibius dujardini is Poland’s most widely-distributed hygrophilous species, but it re presents rather a complex of cryptic species and their diagnosis requires integrative approaches. Most reports of aquatic tardigrades in Poland are accidental findings mostly from water bodies in Tatra Mountains or from lakes in Masurian Lake District. Some species were also reported from small ponds or wastewater treatment plants in other regions like Małopolska or Wielkopolska Provinces.

НАКОНЕЧНИКИ НОЖЕН ПРУССКИХ МЕЧЕЙ ЭПОХИ ВИКИНГОВ: ПРОИСХОЖДЕНИЕ И СЕМАНТИКА ИЗОБРАЖЕНИЙ

The semantic analysis of the images on the Prussian swords’ scabbard tips of the Viking Age was performed, for the first time in Russian archaeology. The spread of various subtypes of sword scabbard tips in the Prussian settlements and adjacent areas was considered. The oldest tips, subtypes KIa and Kib, were the social markers (their owners were the noble retinue) and are known only from the burial grounds of Northern Sambia, where the retinue antiquities are especially numerous. Here, the tips with a pair of birds are also commonly found. They continue the tradition of using the bird-tipped scabbards to mark the retinue members. Subtypes KIIIb and KVa of the sword scabbard tips spread to the east of Sambia in the 11th century, thereby testifying that the Western Baltic warriors tried to seize control over the local river trade routes. When the veteran warriors left the retinue because of their age, they still carried their weapons as a social marker of their status. The weapons were also used as an element of the burial inventory. In the Prussian settlements, the tips of subtype KVb, Curonian in their origin, were relatively numerous only in Sambia. A few of them were found at the archaeological sites of the Masurian Lake District. This indicates that the Western Baltic tribes shared the same cult of sacred trees and placed the tree symbols on their sword scabbard tips.

Changes in protistan abundance and bacterial activity in response to the addition of eukaryotic inhibitors to natural lake water

Abstract Two short-term (24 h and 48 h) microcosm experiments using natural waters from three eutrophic lakes (Masurian Lake District, Poland) were performed to assess the impact of eukaryotic inhibitors (a combination of cycloheximide and colchicine) on the abundance of nanoflagellates and small ciliates in the <15 µm fraction. The results showed that eukaryotic inhibitors were not completely effective against either group of protists; however, they reduced their numbers considerably. At 24 h of the experiment, 41, 15, and 7% of nanoflagellate and 48, 23, and 3% of ciliate abundances were not lysed, depending on the lake from which water was taken. However, after 48 h of incubation, only below 7% of nanoflagellates and 33, 40, and 17% of ciliates were present in the treatments with inhibitors. Our results suggest that inhibitors may indirectly change bacterial growth and activity, but they do not definitively inhibit these processes. It was concluded that eukaryotic inhibitors are more effective against small nanoflagellates than larger nanoflagellates and ciliates. Concentrations of inhibitors higher than 200 and 100 mg l−1 for cycloheximide and colchicine, respectively, and an incubation time longer than 24 h also seemed to be more appropriate to achieve the complete inhibition of protists.

Forests and foragers: exploitation of wood resources by Mesolithic and para-Neolithic societies in north-eastern Poland

Newly acquired palaeobotanical data, including pollen, charred and uncharred wood, provided an exhaustive overview of the temporal changes in woodlands, which changes are due to the cumulative effect of natural processes and the long-term impact of pre-agrarian societies. We used the unique advantage of the peat bog archaeological site at Szczepanki located on an island in the former Lake Staświn (Masurian Lake District) to get an overview of wood exploitation throughout the Stone Age. Special attention was paid to the period of the most intense settlement, the period of the para-Neolithic Zedmar culture. This culture is interesting due to its economy having not been fully recognized so far, especially with respect to the use of plant resources. The evidence from Szczepanki confirmed the use of 16 arboreal taxa, accessible in local woodlands, as a source of timber by foragers. The majority of both unworked wood and fragments bearing traces of processing has been discovered in layers corresponding to the Zedmar period. An important role in the economy was played by wood with medium or low mechanical properties that was however fissile and amenable to woodworking. In addition, other useful properties such as flexibility, lightness, water resistance, strength and ease of splitting were favoured in the selection. The temporal distribution of wood remains in cultural layers at Szczepanki was convergent with a pollen record documenting the course of postglacial migration and local growth of particular taxa, as well as with the archaeologically documented changes in the intensity and time frame of the settlement.

Charm pendants found among the Roman-time antiquities of the south-eastern Baltic region

The article is aimed at tracing the origin of Roman pendants (referred to as ‘charms’ in Baltic archaeology), dating them and, if possible, determining their semantic meaning. The analysis of these artefacts, found among the antiquities from the mouth of the Vistula River and south-eastern Baltic states, leads to the following conclu-sions. Hellenistic glass pendants in the form of amphorisks were supposedly the predecessors of charm pendants in question. In the early Roman time, German masters began to imitate them in the form of amber 8-shaped pen-dants. On the western edge of the Baltic world, these pendants appeared in phase C1b. In the Masurian Lake District, bronze charm pendants of the subtypes Mączyńska 530a, 530 spread somewhat earlier. They were a symbol of the divine power of Donar/Heracles, displaying his club. Pendants in the form of pinheads, occasionally found among the antiquities of the Aesti in the final phase of Roman time, are genetically ascending to these finds. Presumably, they can be associated with Scandinavian two-eyed hollow pendants, which were used to keep incense. In the Merovingian era, the tradition of using these types of pendants among the Prussians faded.

Fungi inhabiting the aboveground organs of downy willow (Salix lapponum L.) and swamp willow (Salix myrtilloides L.)

The species of downy willow (<em>Salix lapponum</em>) and swamp willow (<em>Salix myrtilloides</em>) are extremely rare relicts among all members of the genus <em>Salix</em>. In Poland, they occur only in the eastern part of the Karkonosze Mountains, Masurian Lake District, and Polesie Lubelskie area. A huge threat to both species is the drainage of peat bogs and their excessive exploitation as well as diseases caused by bacteria and fungi. The present study aimed identify fungal species colonizing the aboveground organs of plants with disease symptoms and to indicate which species may pose a threat towards <em>S. lapponum</em> and <em>S. myrtilloides</em> growing under natural conditions. This research was conducted in Polesie National Park as a part of a research project by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education. Plant health assessments were carried out in natural habitats, while aboveground organs with disease symptoms were collected for laboratory mycological analysis. <em>Colletotrichum salicis</em> (teleomorph <em>Glomerella salicis</em>), <em>Coniothyrium concentricum</em>, <em>Cylindrosporium salicinum</em>, <em>Phomopsis</em> spp., <em>Truncatella angustata</em>, and <em>Cytospora chrysosperma</em> (teleomorph <em>Valsa sordida</em>) were the fungal species most frequently isolated from leaves and shoots of both willow species. The above-mentioned fungi are dangerous plant pathogens from the family Salicaceae. There were no obligatory parasites or monophagous pathogens on the aboveground organs of downy or swamp willow. Obligatory parasites may indicate a markedly low population of host plants in Polish conditions.

Phyllosphere of Submerged Plants in Bathing Lakes as a Reservoir of Fungi\u2014Potential Human Pathogens

This study analysed whether the littoral zone in the immediate vicinity of bathing sites retains potentially pathogenic yeasts on the phyllosphere surface and to what extent the species composition of microfungi in the phyllosphere and in surface waters is similar. The research was carried out in selected lakes located within the administrative boundaries of the city of Olsztyn, the largest city in the Masurian Lake District (NE Poland). The experiment was conducted in three summer seasons near bathing sites in three lakes, which are the most popular as recreational sites (Lake Kortowskie, Lake Tyrsko, and Lake Skanda). Microfungi isolated from the phyllosphere of 13 plant species of the littoral zone from dropped leaves of coast plants with no disease symptoms were used as the study material. The isolated fungi were identified in accordance with the accepted diagnostic procedures applied in mycological laboratories. A total of 36 yeast species of 16 genera were identified. Fungi found earlier at the bathing sites of the lakes were identified in 60% of the cases. Nine species were categorised as class BSL-2 fungi. This study provides a valuable complement of data concerning the natural composition of the littoral microbiota.

Microfiltration and ultrafiltration for treatment of lake water during algal blooms

In this study, pressure driven ceramic membranes for microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF) were used to improve the quality of waters in lakes. Four urban lakes located in the city of Olsztyn and belong to the Masurian Lake District: Track (53°47′21″N; 20°32′24″E), Podkówka (53°47′2″N; 20°27′1″E), Tyrsko (53°48′18″N; 20°25′21″E), and Redykajny (53°48′55″N; 20°25′4″E) were examined. The effects of the composition of lake water from different photic zones and of the type of membrane on the efficiency of removal of total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) were investigated. The average efficiencies of rejection were 71.6±5.8% (TOC), 16.0±5.7% (TP) and 19.6±9.3% (TN), independently of the composition of the feed and the type of membrane. Due to the similar average permeate fluxes of 2.2±0.1L/(m2min) and water recoveries of above 85% in MF and UF, the use of MF is suggested because it has lower operational costs than UF. Because membrane filtration of waters from the zones with the highest chlorophyll contents was very effective both in terms of efficiency of pollutant rejection and hydraulic parameters of membranes, this technology can be used for selective treatment of parts of water with the highest phytoplankton abundance.

Nest size variability and interspecific nest reuse in Little Crake

In this study, we describe the nest size characteristics and the breeding attempt of Little Crake ( Zapornia parva) in the abandoned nest of Common Coot ( Fulica atra) at the small mid-field pond in the Masurian Lake District, northeast Poland. Based on the 6-year study during five breeding seasons, we found 123 nests of Little Crake, but such an instance was observed only once. To the best of our knowledge, this observation is the first record of the use of the same nest by two species of rallids. We discuss what could force crakes to make such a decision, why this breeding attempt failed and why such instances are so rare in marsh-nesting species. The nest size in mid-field ponds localized in northern Poland was slightly smaller than that recorded in fishponds in the Czech Republic, but larger than the records obtained in lakes in Germany and Russia.