Mastery Orientation Research Articles

The need to win is not adaptive: the need to win, coping strategies, hope and self-esteem

In a previous paper we reported the factor analytic development of a scale that differentiates people, among other things, in terms of their need to win (WIN), their need to perform well (PW) and their preference for difficult tasks (DIFF). This paper presents correlations between WIN, PW and DIFF and various personality/coping measures. The correlations indicate that people with a strong need to win as compared with people who like to perform well or like difficult tasks tend to have poorer coping skills (e.g., tend to engage in denial and become behaviorally and mentally disengaged when stressed), tend to see the world as more hostile (e.g., “it is a dog-eat-dog world”), tend to have an entity view of intelligence/skills (e.g., intelligence is fixed), tend to view the route to success as coming from such things as modeling and appearance. In addition, people with a need to win tend to have poorer self-esteem (SE) and tend to be lower in hope (HOPE) than people who like to perform well (PW) and people who like difficult tasks (DIFF). These results are consistent with the idea that people with a need to win tend to have an ego orientation whereas people who like to perform well and who like difficult tasks tend to have a mastery orientation.

Gender differences in motivation and strategy use in science: Are girls rote learners?

This study explored Ridley and Novak's (1983) hypothesis that gender differences in science achievement are due to differences in rote and meaningful learning modes. To test this hypothesis, we examined gender differences in fifth- and sixth-grade students' (N = 213) self-reports of confidence, motivation goals (task mastery, ego, and work avoidance), and learning strategies (active and superficial) in whole-class and small-group science lessons. Overall, the results revealed few gender differences. Compared with girls, boys reported greater confidence in their science abilities. Average-achieving girls reported greater use of meaningful learning strategies than did their male counterparts, whereas low-ability boys reported a stronger mastery orientation than did low-ability girls. The results further showed that students report greater confidence and mastery motivation in small-group than whole-class lessons. In contrast, students reported greater work avoidance in whole-class than small-group lessons. In general, the findings provide little support for Ridley and Novak's hypothesis that girls tend to engage in rote-level learning in science classes. Differences in self-reports of motivation and strategy-use patterns were more strongly related to the student's ability level and to the structure of learning activities (small group vs. whole class) than to gender. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

理科の動機づけの因果モデルの検討

The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between motives for science learning and factors related to academic achievement in science by path analysis. Two hundred twenty-two junior high school students were given questionnaires on their perceptions of motives for science learning, and factors related to academic achievement in science, i. e., attitude for science(feelings for science), interest in and concern for biological teaching materials, and competence in science learning. Sub-dimensional components of motives for science learning was constructed. By applying factor analysis, four factors were found. Motives for science learning was evaluated by a mastery orientation scale, an activity orientation scale, a reality orientation scale, and a profit orientation scale. Based on previous work's model, a new causality model composed of four levels in science was constructed: attitude for science→interest in and concern for biological teaching materials→motives for science learning→competence in science. Through this analysis, the causal relationship between motives for science learning and factors related to academic achievementin science was revealed.

Motivational styles in English and mathematics among children identified as having special educational needs.

This study is concerned with the identification, development and prevalence of three different motivational styles: learned helplessness, self-worth motivation and mastery orientation in two National Curriculum core subjects: English and mathematics. These three motivational styles are concerned with the ways in which children respond in the face of difficult and challenging educational tasks. Using Craske's (1988) procedures, a total of 437 children in their first year of secondary school (aged 11-12) were categorised into one of the three motivational styles. Children with special educational needs were identified using a battery of cognitive ability tests (Thorndike, Hagen & France, 1986). This study compares the prevalence of each motivational style in English and mathematics in children of different abilities and presents empirical support for the view that learned helplessness and self-worth motivation are more prevalent among children identified as having special educational needs. Further analyses indicate that: overall, learned helplessness and self-worth motivation are more prevalent in English than mathematics; learned helplessness is more prevalent among girls and self-worth motivation among boys in mathematics. Implications for teachers in developing teaching strategies which foster mastery orientation in their children are discussed.

Relationship of Player Status and Time of Season to Achievement Goals and Perceived Ability in Interscholastic Athletes

The purpose of this investigation was to replicate and extend previous research (16) that examined group differences (starters, primary and secondary substitutes) on achievement goal orientations, perceived ability, and level of satisfaction. Athletes (N=417), ranging in age from 14 to 18 years, responded to an interscholastic sport questionnaire at preseason and postseason. Multivariate analyses revealed significant player status and time-of-season main effects for males, females, and age groups 14–15 years, 16 years, and 17–18 years. Follow-up analyses indicated that starters were significantly higher on their perceived ability rating than primary and secondary substitutes. Group differences also revealed there were player status differences on the ability and mastery goal orientations for males and females, and for 17- to 18-year-olds. The time main effect revealed that the mastery orientation decreased from the preseason to postseason assessment.

Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation.

This article examines the classroom learning environment in relation to achievement goal theory of motivation. Classroom structures are described in terms of how they make different types of achievement goals salient and as a consequence elicit qualitatively different patterns of motivation. Task, evaluation and recognition, and authority dimensions of classrooms are presented as examples of structures that can influence children's orientation toward different achievement goals. Central to the thesis of this article is a perspective that argues for an identification of classroom structures that can contribute to a mastery orientation, a systematic analysis of these structures, and a determination of how these structures relate to each other

Conversations in the nursery: How they contribute to aspirations and plans

Abstract Each year sees the publication of new studies demonstrating that early education can have a dramatic effect on children's ‘life chances’, especially for children who come from disadvantaged backgrounds (Lazar & Darlington, 1982; Wasik et al., 1990; Sylva, 1989). Although some have argued that increased cognitive skills are the cause of long‐term impact (Berrueta‐Clement et al., 1984), it is suggested in this paper that the long term effects of early education are mediated by enhanced educational aspiration and motivation, not cognitive skills per se. This model is discussed with reference to the dialogues which are part of the Plan, Do, Review Cycle in the High/Scope curriculum (Hohmann et al., 1979) and the experimental work of Dweck & Leggett (1988) on the development of mastery orientation.

Work Experience and Control Orientation in Adolescence

Adolescent orientations toward and expectancies about competent action are important predictors of adult attainment. Using panel data, this study shows that part-time work experiences and mastery orientation are reciprocally related among adolescents. Prior control orientation, measured by Pearlin's mastery scale, significantly influenced the character of boys' and girls' subsequent work experiences. Furthermore, extrinsic conditions and stressors at work were found to affect adolescents' control orientation. For boys, conditions of opportunity at work had a significant positive effect on tenth-grade mastery, whereas conflicts between school and work fostered a more external control orientation. Boys' educational plans for the future moderated the effects of conflict between school and work. Girls' evaluations of their pay were found to support an internal control orientation; however, responsibility for things that were perceived as being beyond their control engendered a more external control orientation.

Academic Achievement Orientation and Help-Seeking Behavior in Early Adolescent Girls

This study evaluated task persistence and help-seeking behaviors among 40 girls, 20 each at the fourth- and sixth-grade levels. The girls were classified as high or low in mastery orientation using their scores on a subset of items on the Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Scale. Task persistence and help-seeking behaviors were observed while the girls performed a perceptual performance cognitive task. Results indicated that task persistence measured as time spent working on the task did not vary with grade level or mastery orientation. As predicted, girls high in mastery orientation displayed proportionately more adaptive bids for help that focused on solving the task than did their low mastery counterparts. Moreover, girls high in mastery orientation viewed help seeking more favorably as an alternative means of goal attainment than did low mastery-oriented girls. The results are discussed in terms of individual differences in strategies for coping with stress in achievement settings.

Relationships between study organization, retrieval organization, and general and strategy-specific memory knowledge in young children

The present study examined relationships between young children's memory knowledge and their use of taxonomic and color memory organization. Forty-eight, 5-, 6-, and 7-year-olds were administered metamemory tests of organization-strategy knowledge and general memory knowledge, and were tested on two study-recall tasks before, and two study-recall tasks after, training in the use of color or taxonomic organization. Study organization (grouping) scores were low before training, but improved significantly in post-training tasks. Training effects were less pronounced for retrieval organization (clustering) and did not occur for item recall. Relationships between taxonomic study and retrieval organization were apparent only for the 7-year-olds, while relationships between color organization at study and retrieval were not apparentat any age level. Relationships between metamemory, strategy-use, and recall proficiency were evident on some tasks for 7-year-olds, but not for younger children. Although teacher ratings of the children's mastery orientations were also found to be related to recall proficiency for the older subjects, specific strategy knowledge was a more consistent correlate of strategy use and amount recalled.

Assessment of adolescents' learned helplessness in achievement situations.

Three studies are reported that describe the development, reliability, and initial validation of the Mastery Orientation Inventory (MOI; Reynolds & Miller, in press) as a measure of generalized learned helplessness in adolescents. In Study 1, an initial version of 50 items was administered to a sample of 112 adolescents. A revised 40-item scale with an internal consistency reliability of .94 was then constructed, which correlated significantly with measures of locus of control and depression. Study 2 involved the administration of the 40-item MOI to 645 adolescents. In this study, the reliability of the MOI was .92, and MOI scores were significantly correlated with subjects' depression scores and with self-reported grade point average. Factor analysis of the MOI items produced a strong first factor with high loadings for every item. In Study 3, the 112 subjects who participated in Study 1 were, 3 months later, readministered the MOI, locus of control, and depression measures. As an external criterion variable, 13 teachers provided global ratings of learned helpless/mastery-oriented behaviors for 99 of these subjects. The MOI demonstrated high internal consistency (r alpha = .95) and adequate test-retest (rtt = .77) reliability. Validity was supported by significant correlations between the MOI and the three criterion variables (/rs/ = .49-.58). The results of these investigations provide initial support for the reliability and validity of the MOI as a measure of learned helplessness.

The Keller Plan, Final Examinations, and Long-Term Retention

The Keller Plan for a personalized system of instruction as applied college-level courses is usually characterized by (a) individual pacing, mastery orientation, (c) the presence of student tutors, (d) the use study guides, and (e) the inclusion of a few lectures for enrichment Kulik, & Carmichael, 1974). In mathematics courses the plan has positive reactions from students, lower dropout rates, and higher final ination scores (Anderson & Pritchett, 1977; Peluso & Baranchik, Rogers & Young, 1977; Struik & Flexer, 1977; Waits & Riner, 1975; 1977). The issue of the long-term retention of concepts in personalized mathematics courses, however, appears not to have

Brief Report: The Keller Plan, Final Examinations, and Long-Term Retention

The Keller Plan for a personalized system of instruction as applied to college-level courses is usually characterized by (a) individual pacing, (b) a mastery orientation, (c) the presence of student tutors, (d) the use of printed study guides, and (e) the inclusion of a few lectures for enrichment (Kulik, Kulik, & Carmichael, 1974). In mathematics courses the plan has led to positive reactions from students, lower dropout rates, and higher final examination scores (Anderson & Pritchett, 1977; Peluso & Baranchik, 1977; Rogers & Young, 1977; Struik & Flexer, 1977; Waits & Riner, 1975; Weir, 1977). The issue of the long-term retention of concepts in personalized mathematics courses, however, appears not to have been addressed.

Depression and learned helplessness in mentally retarded and nonmentally retarded adolescents: an initial investigation.

Depression and learned helplessness were examined in a sample of 26 educably mentally retarded (EMR) adolescents and a matched (on age, sex, and race) group of 26 nonmentally retarded adolescents. Depression and learned helplessness were assessed using the Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (RADS) and Mastery Orientation Inventory (MOI), respectively. Results indicated that EMR adolescents manifested significantly (p less than .001) greater depressive symptomatology than their nonmentally retarded peers. Sex differences were also found, with females demonstrating greater depression scores in both groups. Analysis of severity of symptom endorsement showed significant group differences on items reflecting somatic, self-evaluative, and behavioral components of depression, with mentally retarded subjects demonstrating higher scores. Mentally retarded adolescents were found to score higher (p less than .001) on the learned helplessness measure than nonmentally retarded adolescents. Given the problematic nature of depression noted in large sample epidemiological studies of nonmentally retarded adolescents, the results of this investigation indicate that depression in EMR adolescents is an affective characteristic in need of further study.

Ethnic Group Differences in Educational Achievement in Fiji

Over 600 Form IV (tenth grade) students in Fiji were tested on measures of achievement orientation, self-esteem, sex typing, and certain demographic variables to determine why ethnic Fijians have relatively low educational achievement compared to other ethnic groups. Although ethnic Fijians scored relatively high on Competitiveness, Mastery, and Work Orientation, and relatively low on Personal Unconcern and Self-Esteem, none of the variables adequately predicted scores on the Fiji Junior Exam, taken seven months later, for the native groups. It is likely that factors relating to the meaning of achievement are more important in understanding ethnic group differences in achievement in Fiji than are measures of individual achievement orientation.

A Review of PSI Course Features and Selected Concerns for Their Implementation

This article reviews the five basic features of PSI courses and then assesses the relative importance of each in contributing to students' success. Some of the relevant research findings are cited to provide support for the conclusions regarding each feature. In addition, a number of concerns are presented which should be considered by instructors and instructional designers before implementing a personalized system. While PSI may not be appropriate for all instructional settings, the system is based on some tenets of sound teaching practice: high student involvement, immediate feedback, and mastery orientation.

The hunger of old men

Young men in Kansas City are more like young Navajo men than they are like old men in Kansas City. Old Druze tribesmen from the hills of Galilee are very like old Maya Indians from Mexico; the resemblances between the two are stronger than any similarities between young and old Maya or young and old Druze men. Middle-aged men from Kansas City have much in common with middle-aged Druze, Maya, and Navajo men and little in common with younger and older Kansas City men. Obviously, these statements cannot be true. Shared environment, genetic heritage, culture, and level of civilization will always tie men more closely together than could age alone. But aging releases powerful psychic forces, particularly those which affect the perception of reality and the management of vital concerns, or so cross-cultural research using personal interviews and projective tests indicates. Further, this research indicates that insofar as they concern basic stances towards the conception and mastery of reality, the statements in the first paragraph are true after all. The first research took place in Kansas City. There we found that men, as they age, move through successive, distinct modes of creating, defining, and managing experience. Younger men, 35 throt~gh 49, had an active-productive orientation; they thought that Iife would not be lived unless they lived it. Older men, aged 50 through 64, were found to have a more passive-receptive orientation; they lived more by the motto, " I f you want to get along, you've got to go along." Finally, the oldest men, 65 and over, were apt to deal with problems projectively, through distortions of reality, rather than instrumentally. The Kansas City study was repeated in several preliterate societies: Navajo, lowland and highland Maya of Mexico, and the Druze of Israel. Though data analysis has not yet been completed, thus far the results from the various studies support the American findings: in all cases, age was a better predictor of mastery orientation than was culture. Like the younger men in Kansas City, the younger Druze, Maya, and Navajo were mainly concerned with controlling the sources of security for themselves and their dependents. These young men see the power for good and evil as lodged within themselves: their task as they define it is to control their own destructive potential and to maximize their good, productive powers. In every society studied, older men also