Masses Of Elementary Particles Research Articles

Topportunities at the LHC: rare top decays with light singlets

The discovery of the top quark, the most massive elementary particle yet known, has given us a distinct window into investigating the physics of the Standard Model and beyond. With a plethora of top quarks to be produced in the high luminosity era of the LHC, the exploration of its rare decays holds great promise in revealing potential new physics phenomena. We consider higher-dimensional operators contributing to flavour-changing-neutral-current top decays in the SMEFT and its extension by a light singlet species of spin 0, 1/2, or 1, and exhibit that the HL-LHC (and other future colliders) may observe many exotic top decays in a variety of channels. Light singlets which primarily talk to the SM through such a top interaction may also lead to distinctive long-lived particle signals. Searching for such long-lived particles in top-quark decays has the additional advantage that the SM decay of the other top quark in the same event provides a natural trigger.

A new perspective on Kaluza–Klein theories

Assuming that the geometry of spacetime is uniquely determined by the energy–momentum tensor of matter alone, i.e. without any interactions, enables us to construct the Lagrangian from which the metric of higher dimensional spacetime follows. From the geodesic equations that follow, it becomes clear that the incorrect mass of elementary particles predicted by Kaluza–Klein theories arises from the assumption that in the absence of gravity the solution to the Einstein field equations reduces to the Minkowski metric. From construction of a consistent theory of 4D electromagnetism, we find that this assumption does not only result in the incorrect mass of elementary particles, but also the incorrect value of the cosmological constant. This suggests that these incorrect predictions, which are often regarded as major flaws of Kaluza–Klein theories, just reflect the inconsistency of the assumption that the solution to Einstein field equations reduces to Minkowski metric in the absence of gravity and Weyl invariance which is the symmetry of gauge theories in 4D spacetime. Abandoning this assumption results in modification of general relativity. We show that the unified description of fundamental interactions naturally incorporates the Higgs mechanism. For non-Abelian gauge fields, we find that the manifold comprising the extra dimensions has to be a group manifold and show that the standard model is realized in 16D spacetime. We show that charge and spin are the same concept, but what makes them different is that the former follows from symmetry of 4D spacetime while the latter follows from symmetry of the internal space.

Understanding the Origins of Quark Charges, Quantum of Magnetic Flux, Planck’s Radiation Constant and Celestial Magnetic Moments with the 4G Model of Nuclear Charge

Introduction: In our previous published papers, considering 3 large atomic gravitational constants assumed to be associated with weak, strong and electromagnetic interactions, we have proposed the existence of a nuclear charge of magnitude, en=2.95e and developed a nuclear mass formula associated with strong and weak interactions having 4 simple terms and only one energy coefficient. Methods: Two important assumptions are that there exists a weak fermion of rest energy 585 GeV and a strong coupling constant is the squared ratio of electromagnetic charge and nuclear charge. The aim of this paper is associated with understanding the mystery of the quantum of magnetic flux, Planck’s quantum radiation constant and Reduced Planck’s constant. Proceeding further, quark charges, strong coupling constant, nuclear stability, nuclear binding energy, medium and heavy atomic X-ray levels and celestial magnetic moments can be understood in a unified approach. It may also be noted that, by considering the integral nature of elementary particle masses, it seems possible to understand the discreteness of angular momentum. Results: Considering our proposed en=2.95e=3e as a characteristic nuclear charge, it seems possible to understand the integral nature of quarks electromagnetic charge. With this idea, neutron, proton and pion decay can be understood very easily. Conclusion: In all the cases, the up quark of charge (±2e) seems to play a crucial role in the internal transformation of the down quark of charge (±e) and external observable elementary basic elementary particles. It needs further study at the fundamental level.

The Errors in the Foundation of the “Standard Model” theory and the “New Model”

In Physics, when various theories have disputed points, they are temporarily established, until their disputed points are clarified. If the disputed points of the theories are not clarified, the theories are rejected, if they are clarified and no new disputed points arise, the theories are definitively established. A theory may also be established definitively even when its disputed points are of secondary importance. However, in general, an established theory is always in question, since with the progress of science, new data may emerge that will questions the correctness of the theory. Thus the theory of the Standard Model, which is a branch of the theory of Quanta and describes the elementary structural components of matter, the strong, weak and electromagnetic interactions between them and the Higgs mechanism for the origin of the mass of elementary particles, been established as a very well-founded theory, according to the proponents of the theory, which has predicted many experimental results and the existence of many particles and has withstood many theoretical and experimental tests. But because the theory also has many disputed points, as I describe in papers [1, 2], it was temporarily established until the clarification of its disputed points. In this paper I describe some errors of the Standard Model theory, created during the foundation of the theory which burden the theory even more, since it is very negative to establish a theory on a false foundation. In any way to supplement or replace the gap that may leave the theory of the Standard Model, which I believe, sooner or later, but at some point of time, due to the disputed points and the errors of its foundation, will be withdrawn, I propose a New Model, which most convincingly describes the elementary building blocks of matter, antimatter and their interactions. The New Model also addresses all the weak points of the Standard Model theory, how the mass of subnuclear particles is created, and includes gravity, which is not included in the Standard Model theory

The Vacuum Energy Problem in Quantum Gravity and the Masses of Elementary Particles

The Vacuum Energy Problem in Quantum Gravity and the Masses of Elementary Particles

Higgs Physics Research: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow

This article reviews the discovery of the Higgs boson, discusses the studies of its properties, and introduces the physical prospects of the future Higgs factories.<br>The greatest goal of particle physics is to understand the fundamental particles of the universe and how they interact (or more generally, how the universe works). In the Standard Model of particle phyiscs, the Higgs mechanism generates elementary particle masses and predicts the existence of the Higgs boson. Higgs physics is one of the most important research areas in particle physics.<br>The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN (Geneva, Switzerland) accelerates beams of protons to collide them at a center-of-mass energy of 13 TeV, defining the world’s energy frontier. The ATLAS and CMS detectors are two general-purpose detectors at the LHC, studying the debris from the collisions.<br>The Higgs boson was discovered by the ATLAS and CMS experiments in 2012. This discovery completed the fundamental particle spectrum of the Standard Model and was a major milestone for particle physics. Since then, many studies of the Higgs boson properties (including spin, mass and couplings) have been performed to refine our understanding of the Higgs mechanism. In particular, the Higgs boson’s couplings to fermions and to itself are new kinds of fundamental interactions with paramount significance, and have not been fully established. Additionally, the Higgs boson has become an important tool to search for Dark Matter, heavy resonance, and other new physics phenomena. So far, there has been no deviation from the the Standard Model predictions.<br>Looking towards the future, electron-positron colliders have been proposed to study the Higgs boson more deeply. Physics studies have shown that these Higgs factories can largely improve precision on many properties of the Higgs boson (including width and couplings) and provide great physics prospects.

A beyond-the-Standard-Model model without Higgs

In this talk we describe the construction of a putative beyond-the-Standard-Model model where, as a viable alternative to the Higgs scenario, elementary particle masses emerge in a non-perturbative way as a consequence of a sort of “interference” between residual UV chiral breaking effects left behind in the Nambu–Goldstone phase of the theory at a critical value of the Yukawa coupling where chiral symmetry is recovered, and IR features triggered by the phenomenon of spontaneous breaking of (the recovered) chiral symmetry which standardly takes place in a strongly interacting theory. Elementary particle masses are all proportional to the RGI scale of the theory. Thus to get the top quark and the electro-weak boson masses at the desired value one must have ΛRGI≫ΛQCD. This in turn implies that there must exist a new superstrongly interacting sector of fermions (we call them Tera-fermions) gauge invariantly coupled to Standard Model matter with ΛRGI≡ΛT of the order of a few TeVs. We give the expression of the full Lagrangian of a model encompassing quarks, Tera-quarks and W, as well as leptons, Tera-leptons and B gauge bosons when besides strong, Tera-strong and weak interactions, also hypercharge is included. The interest of considering elementary particle physics models with this kind of non-perturbative mass generation mechanism is twofold. First of all, unlike the Standard Model in this scenario elementary particle masses are not free parameters but are determined by the dynamics of the theory. Secondly, some of the conceptual problems of today's formulation of the Standard Model, namely origin of the electroweak scale and naturalness, find a possible solution.

The Unified Quantum Picture of the World

This article describes a model of Unitary Quantum Field theory where the particle is represented as a wave packet. The frequency dispersion equation is chosen so that the packet periodically appears and disappears without form changings. The envelope of the process is identified with a conventional wave function. Equation of such a field is nonlinear and relativistically invariant. With proper adjustments, they are reduced to Dirac, Schrödinger and Hamilton-Jacobi equations. A number of new experimental effects have been predicted both for high and low energies. Fine structure constant (1/137) was determined in 1988, masses of numerous elementary particles starting from electron were evaluated in 2007 with accuracy less than 1 % . 2 pentaquarks, θ^+barion, Higgs boson and particle 28 GeV were discovered 11 years later, all of them were evaluated with high accuracy before. The overall picture of the world is based on a unify field. These Equations allow for the beginning of a universe without a Big Bang. Gravity ceases to be a mystery. In principle, a completely new type of "green" energy is possible for mankind.

The speed of the body at the moment of transition to a massless state is a new world constant

Based on the kinetic theory of gases, the minimum temperature and critical velocity of a body necessary for its transition to a massless state are estimated. The value of this speed ω = 235696.8871 km⁄s is a new world constant, since it is the same for a body, regardless of its size, mass, density, and chemical composition. For the first time, the masses of X, and Y - bosons, as well as the zeroing temperatures of the mass of elementary particles have been calculated.

Elementary Particle Masses: Alternative Model to the BEH Mechanism

In a first paper [1], we developed a model to calculate the masses of charged leptons by quantifying the electrostatic field generated by these particles. In a second article [2], we extended this model to weak and strong interactions in order to calculate the masses of all elementary fermions. The present paper is a modified version of the second article, adding a hypothesis on the mass of dark matter particles. In this way, the model could be an alternative to the BEH mechanism of the standard model.      

Observation of electroweak production of two jets and a Z-boson pair

Electroweak symmetry breaking explains the origin of the masses of elementary particles through their interactions with the Higgs field. Besides the measurements of the Higgs boson properties, the study of the scattering of massive vector bosons with spin 1 allows the nature of electroweak symmetry breaking to be probed. Among all processes related to vector-boson scattering, the electroweak production of two jets and a Z-boson pair is a rare and important one. Here we report the observation of this process from proton–proton collision data corresponding to an integrated luminosity of 139 fb−1 recorded at a centre-of-mass energy of 13 TeV with the ATLAS detector at the Large Hadron Collider. We consider two different final states originating from the decays of the Z-boson pair: one containing four charged leptons and another containing two charged leptons and two neutrinos. The hypothesis of no electroweak production is rejected with a statistical significance of 5.7σ, and the measured cross-section for electroweak production is consistent with the Standard Model prediction. In addition, we report cross-sections for inclusive production of a Z-boson pair and two jets for the two final states.

Mass spectrum of elementary particles

In this study, we discuss different methods for quantifying the mass of elementary particles. The Barut’s model approach gives us a more comprehensive understanding of elementary particles and their formation through magnetic interaction. Through this model, we can understand the mechanism of the formation of hundreds of unstable elementary particles whose components are interconnected through positive energy and thus quickly disintegrate into their basic components.

Higgs in a Box: Investigating the Nature of a Scientific Discovery

The discovery of the Higgs boson by the ATLAS and CMS collaborations in 2012 concluded the longest search for a particle in the history of particle physics and was based on the largest and most complex physics experiments ever conducted, involving thousands of scientists and engineers from around the world. It provided crucial evidence for a theory developed in the 1960s that describes the existence of the invisible Brout–Englert–Higgs field and the effects of this field on the mass of elementary particles. After the discovery, the work on the theoretical prediction was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics 2013. This discovery provides a prime example of modern science in the making and a fantastic opportunity to discuss important aspects of Nature of Science (NoS) in the classroom. In this article, we draw connections between (a) milestones in the discovery of the Higgs boson, (b) important aspects of NoS, and (c) hands-on activities with mystery boxes, which are an effective tool to enable students to experience elements of scientific discovery and explicitly reflect on NoS. We hope that this supports educators in bringing lively discussions about modern physics research into their classrooms.

QCD QED Potentials, Quark Confinement

One of the enduring puzzles in high energy particle physics is why quarks do not exist independently ‎despite their existence inside the hadron as quarks have never been found in isolation. This problem may ‎be solved by formulating a QCD potential for the entire range of interaction distances of the quarks. The ‎mystery could be related to the fundamental origin of the mass of elementary particles despite the success ‎of the quantum field theories to the highest level of accuracy. The renormalization program is an essential ‎part of the calculation of the scattering amplitudes, where the infinities of the calculated masses of the ‎elementary particles are subtracted for the progressive calculation of the higher-order perturbative terms. ‎The mathematical structure of the mass term from quantum field theories expressed in the form of infinities ‎suggests that there may exist a finite dynamical mass in the limit when the input mass parameter ‎approaches zero. The Lagrangian recovers symmetry at the same time as the input mass becomes zero, ‎whereas the self-energy diagrams acquire a finite dynamical mass in the 4-dimensional space when the ‎dimensional regularization method of renormalization is utilized. We report a new finding that using the ‎mathematical expression of the self-energy(mass) for photons and gluons calculated from this method, the ‎complex form of the QCD and QED interaction potentials can be obtained by replacing the fixed ‎interaction mediating particle’s mass and coupling constants in Yukawa potential with the scale-‎dependent running coupling constant and the corresponding dynamical mass. The derived QCD QED ‎potentials predict the behavior of the related elementary particles exactly as verified by experimental ‎observation.‎

Decay of acoustic turbulence in two dimensions and implications for cosmological gravitational waves

Gravitational waves from a phase transition associated with the generation of the masses of elementary particles are within the reach of future space-based detectors such as LISA. A key determinant of the resulting power spectrum, not previously studied, is the lifetime of the acoustic turbulence which follows. We study decaying acoustic turbulence using numerical simulations of a relativistic fluid in two dimensions. Working in the limit of non-relativistic bulk velocities, with an ultra-relativistic equation of state, we find that the energy spectrum evolves towards a self-similar broken power law, with a high-wavenumber behaviour of $k^{-2.08 \pm 0.08}$, cut off at very high $k$ by the inverse width of the shock waves. Our model for the decay of acoustic turbulence can be extended to three dimensions using the universality of the high-$k$ power law and the evolution laws for the kinetic energy and the integral length scale. It is used to build an estimate for the gravitational wave power spectrum resulting from a collection of shock waves, as might be found in the aftermath of a strong first order phase transition in the early universe. The power spectrum has a peak wavenumber set by the initial length scale of the acoustic waves, and a new secondary scale at a lower wavenumber set by the integral scale after a Hubble time. Between these scales a distinctive new power law appears. Our results allow more accurate predictions of the gravitational wave power spectrum for a wide range of early universe phase transition scenarios.

Probing the Neutrino-Mass Scale with the KATRIN Experiment

The absolute mass scale of neutrinos is an intriguing open question in contemporary physics. The as-yet-unknown mass of the lightest and, at the same time, most abundant massive elementary particle species bears fundamental relevance to theoretical particle physics, astrophysics, and cosmology. The most model-independent experimental approach consists of precision measurements of the kinematics of weak decays, notably tritium β decay. With the KATRIN experiment, this direct neutrino-mass measurement has entered the sub-eV domain, recently pushing the upper limit on the electron-based neutrino mass down to 0.8 eV (90% CL) on the basis of first-year data out of ongoing, multiyear operations. Here, we review the experimental apparatus of KATRIN, the progress of data taking, and initial results. While KATRIN is heading toward the target sensitivity of 0.2 eV, other scientific goals are pursued. We discuss the search for light sterile neutrinos and an outlook on future keV-scale sterile-neutrino searches as well as further physics opportunities beyond the Standard Model.

Pythagorean numbers and the calculation of the masses of the elementary particles

We attempt here to calculate the particle masses for all known elementary particles starting from the Rydberg equation and from the Sommerfeld fine structure constant. Remarkably, this is possible. Next, we try to explain why this is possible and what the meaning of the approach seems to be. Thereby, we find some interesting connections. In addition, we realize that there are two different kinds of mass-charge binding energies in an elementary particle: The internal mass-charge binding energy and the external mass-charge binding energy. These two kinds of mass-charge binding energies can explain the higher masses of the highly charged brother particles in some of the heavier particle triplets (such as the charmed sigma particles).

DETERMINATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

Particles of vacuum make it possible to determine the properties of elementary particles, but there is still a lot of work to develop the properties of particles of vacuum. The development of quantum electrodynamics and the standard model goes back 100 years. Meanwhile, the description of a lower level of masses and energies is 10 years old, and that is through the efforts of one person. When calculating the mass of elementary particles and their magnetic moment, linear formulas are used, which reduces the accuracy of the calculation. One must think about nonlinear corrections.

The mass-charge binding energy as an explanation for the superfine adjustment of the hadron and baryon masses

Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) describes how mass is created at the quark level. This mechanism is special, because the binding of quarks does not result in a mass loss or a release of energy, as in the case of the nuclear mass defect. Rather, mass is created by the binding of quarks. To achieve this binding, energy must be expended. At the same time, however, quarks are firmly bound to each other. Several authors have shown that the masses of the elementary particles as determined by means of QCD agree quite well with the experimentally determined values. In the following, superfine adjustment of the masses of the charged elementary particles is shown to be possible by considering the mass defect in terms of the mass-charge binding energy.

Fully Symmetric Relativistic Quantum Mechanics and Its Physical Implications

A new formulation of relativistic quantum mechanics is presented and applied to a free, massive, and spin-zero elementary particle in the Minkowski spacetime. The reformulation requires that time and space, as well as the timelike and spacelike intervals, are treated equally, which makes the new theory fully symmetric and consistent with the special theory of relativity. The theory correctly reproduces the classical action of a relativistic particle in the path integral formalism, and allows for the introduction of a new quantity called vector-mass, whose physical implications for nonlocality, the uncertainty principle, and quantum vacuum are described and discussed.