Mass Bathing Research Articles

Comparative analysis of phytoplankton dynamics and water quality assessment in selected lentic water bodies of Haryana, India

The study was designed to assess the water quality based on physico-chemical parameters and phytoplankton communities of eight lentic water bodies of Haryana which are famous for mass bathing and religious rituals taking place here. To evaluate comparative analysis of composition, diversity and distribution of Phytoplankton and physico-chemical factors, water samples were collected seasonally viz., summer, monsoon, post monsoon and in winters from all the eight sites in triplicate. Total 118 phytoplankton taxa were observed at all sites. Among these cyanophyceae group was found most dominant at sites 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 whereas cholorophyceae at site 6, bacillariophyceae at site 1,3,4,7 whereas xanthophyceae was in abundance at site 5. Population density (nos. L-1) wise phytoplankton trend was Cyanophyceae > Chlorophyceae > Bacillariophyceae >Desmidiaceae and Species diversity wise phytoplankton trend observed was Chlorophyceae > Bacillariophyceae > Cyanophyceae >Desmidiaceae. Correlation of different phytoplankton groups with physicochemical factors revealed a significant negative correlation of Cyanophyceae with pH, whereas a significant positive correlation of ortho-phosphate with Desmids and bacillariophyceae wheareas CO2 showed a positive correlation with Xanthophyceae. Appearance of pollution tolerant taxa of phytoplankton Microcystis aeruginosa, Phormidium sp., Scenedesmus spp., Pediastrum spp., Mougeotia sp., Synedra sp., Pediastrum spp. at most of the sites indicated the sign of the more organic pollution and degradation in the water quality of the selected sites due to religious immersion, mass bathing and by other anthropogenic activities. Suitable remedial actions should be adopted by regulatory bodies and policy makers to maintain the water quality of these aquatic systems.

Water Quality Assessment of Brahma Sarovar: A Sacred Lake at Kurukshetra (India)

Brahama Sarovar, in Kurukshetra city (India), is an ancient sacred lake where devotees perform various religious activities/offerings on daily basis, and on special occasions of solar and lunar eclipses, millions of pilgrims all over the country have mass bathing (holy-dip) for internal and external purity. Along with religious importance, this artificial lake also acts as a sacred grove/wetland that serves as an important wintering and stopover site for migratory birds from the Palearctic region. The study was carried out with the objective to analyze the improvement in water quality status after the provision of a closed conduit for the supply of fresh water to the lake and additional measures required for public health safety. For this, the water quality of this sacred lake has been spatially analyzed and compared with Indian standards prescribed for ‘Designated Best Use Class-B: Outdoor Bathing (Organised)’ in the present study. Though the parameters – pH (7.94 within the limits of 6.5-8.5), turbidity (3.63 < 5 NTU), TDS (222.33 < 500 mg/L), TSS (100.25 mg/L) and MPN (239.25 ≤ 500 per 100 ml) were observed to be within the permissible limits, but DO (4.7 ≤ 5.0 mg/L) and BOD (3.54 ≥ 3.0 mg/L) of the lake water were found beyond the permissible limits. Thus, making the lake water unfit for human use for bathing. The comparison with the previous two studies revealed that the lake’s water quality has improved in the last couple of years through the provision of a closed conduit, in place of an open channel, for the supply of fresh canal water to the lake. A couple of additional measures have also been suggested to maintain the water quality standards in the lake so as to protect the human health of the devotees and pilgrims.

Rejuvenation and Restoration of Surface Water Quality Amid COVID-19 Lockdown: A Comprehensive Review in Indian Context

Rivers are our country’s lifeline; however, we have done enough destruction to them which leads to deterioration in water quality. Fortunately, COVID-19 lockdown has brought new life to nature. This encouraged us to outline present review article which discusses pilot impacts of lockdown on six Indian rivers. Few rivers including Ganga showed major improvement at few sites in the assessed parameters such as pH, BOD, DO, FC, etc. The Ganga water at Haridwar and Rishikesh was investigated ‘fit for drinking’ (Class A) while at Kanpur was found fit for ‘outdoor bathing’ (Class B). These improvements can be attributed to strict restriction on human activities during lockdown as there were no or minimum industrial discharge, tourism activities, mass bathing and commercial events near rivers. However, after upliftment of lockdown, these activities will return to their previous state and most likely pollutants will eventually reappear in the water bodies. So, in this review we have reviewed government’s existing water pollution control schemes, analysed their limitations and recommended several scopes for improvement. Further research directions in this area have also been highlighted. We believe that plans and actions described in the article, if implemented, will lead to fruitful outcomes in managing water resources.

Impact of organized bathing on Ganga basin water quality during KUMBH-2022 by spatial and temporal analysis

This current study explores the effect of mass bathing during the occasion of Kumbh in Prayagraj on Ganga Basin River water quality by Spatial and Temporal Analysis. Due to the nature of pollution entering the river during this event, the following 7 different sampling sites were selected Sobatiyabagh(s-1), Daraganj(s-2), Gaughat(s-3), Sangam(s-4), Arail Kachar(s-5), Arail Uphar(s-6), Chhatnag(s-7). Kumbh Mela was held from 14 Jan-2022 to 1st March-2022. Water samples were collected during the monthly intervals from December 2021-March-2022. The found values of different Physicochemical parameters like Ph, Electrical conductivity, Hardness, Dissolved Oxygen, BOD, etc., of samples were compared with permissible limits (According to WHO, BIS). The result concluded that except for BOD and hardness, all parameters are within permissible limits during Kumbh. But pre- and post-Kumbh samples results stated that chloride contents are also high in some places. However, it is clear in the present investigation that Ganga Basin water is not potable even when it is not used directly for other purposes.

The impact of organized bathing on ganga basin water quality during KUMBH-2022 by spatial and temporal analysis

This current study explores the effect of mass bathing during the occasion of Kumbh in Prayagraj on Ganga Basin River water quality by Spatial and Temporal Analysis. Due to the nature of pollution entering the river during this event, the following 7 different sampling sites were selected Sobatiyabagh(s-1), Daraganj(s-2), Gaughat(s-3), Sangam(s-4), Arail Kachar(s-5), Arail Uphar(s-6), Chhatnag(s-7). Kumbh Mela was held from 14 Jan-2022 to 1st March-2022. Water samples were collected during the monthly intervals from December 2021-March-2022. The found values of different Physicochemical parameters like Ph, Electrical conductivity, Hardness, Dissolved Oxygen, BOD, etc., of samples were compared with permissible limits (According to WHO, BIS). The result concluded that except for BOD and hardness, all parameters are within permissible limits during Kumbh. But pre- and post-Kumbh samples results stated that chloride contents are also high in some places. However, it is clear in the present investigation that Ganga Basin water is not potable even when it is not used directly for other purposes.

Assessment of mass bathing event (Kumbh- 2019) impact on the river water quality by using multivariate analysis and water quality index (WQI) techniques at Sangam (Prayagraj), India.

This study evaluates the changes in the water quality of the River Ganga and the Yamuna due to the mass bathing events on the occasion of Kumbh-2019 at Sangam in Prayagraj district, Uttar Pradesh, India, by using multivariate statistical techniques and Water Quality Index (WQI). Water samples were collected from 15 locations and analyzed for 17 water quality parameters during the Kumbh-2019 period. The concentration of water quality parameters was used to estimate the WQI. A change in the value of WQI during the studied period was used to interpret the effect of mass bathing. The result of the Analysis of variance (ANOVA) analysis indicates significant variation in the concentration of Electrical conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), anions (HCO3−, Cl−, SO42−, PO43−, NO3−), H4SiO4 and Most Probable Number (MPN) count during Kumbh-2019 event. The concentration of water quality parameters COD, NH4+, NO3− and H4SiO4 showed an increase of 31%, 55%, 40%, and 16%, respectively, during the Kumbh-2019 period. The high MPN count (920 - >1800/100 ml) observed during the Kumbh period makes it unfit for drinking and bathing. The pH, COD, NH4, and MPN counts are primary factors contributing to the water quality index (WQI) during the Kumbh period. The WQI value observed during the Kumbh period was relatively higher and ranged between 59 and 132, indicating the degradation of water quality from very poor to unsuitable for drinking purposes during the Kumbh-2019.

Exploring microbiome from sediments of River Ganga using a metagenomic approach

Abstract The Ganga is a major riverine system of India providing ecosystem services to millions of households. However, this river is under stress due to various anthropogenic activities. River sediment harbours a variety of microorganisms which has a tremendous influence on river health. In the present study, metagenomic approach for microbial community characterization of three sediment samples collected from River Ganga at Farakka stretch was carried out. The sediment samples were sequenced using a high-throughput Next Generation Sequencing platform. Taxonomical classification study showed that the occurrence of bacteria is higher than other groups of microbes. The bacterial classes, such as Betaproteobacteria, Deltaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and archaeal phylum, Thaumarchaeota, and Crenarchaeota were relatively higher than other communities. KEGG pathway analysis of three samples revealed that the number of genes associated with environmental information processing is higher in the Lalbag sample in comparison to Farakka barrage and Dhulian samples. The microbial community was categorized by functional classification using SEED analysis. Both COG and SEED analysis revealed that genes associated with carbohydrate metabolism are higher than other functional categories. The genus-level study confirms the higher occurrence of Pseudomonas, which corresponds to anthropogenic activities like mass bathing. The presence of bacterial genus Nitrospira and archaeal phylum Thaumarchaeota confirms a healthy nitrogen cycle in the environment. Moreover, the generated information would help in understanding the importance of microbial communities and their imperative function in maintaining the riverine ecosystem health.

«Саратовская купель»: осложнение государственно-церковных отношений в СССР в конце 1940-х гг. (на материалах Саратовского Поволжья)

The article reveals the relationship between the Soviet state and the Russian Orthodox Church (the ROC) in the late 1940s on the territory of the Saratov Volga region. After several years of a forced truce, the state began to tighten its religious policy again and resumed an active anti-religious campaign. One of the reasons was the scandal in the Saratov region in 1949, connected with the mass bathing on the Epiphany holiday and the subsequent publication of I. Ryabov’s feuilleton called “Saratov font” in the Pravda newspaper. The anti-religious campaign that followed these events revealed multiple manifestations of religiousness in the Saratov region of both the ordinary population and representatives of the authorities. It turned out that many people participated in the sacraments of the Church, wore crosses and provided all possible assistance to the Church. As a result, a wave of administrative punishments started again: believers were expelled from the party, fired from their jobs. But a complete rupture of relations between the state and the church did not happen, which was associated with the intense foreign policy activities of the ROC and its participation in the struggle for peace.

Extended Ecological Restoration of Bacterial Communities in the Godavari River During the COVID-19 Lockdown Period: a Spatiotemporal Meta-analysis.

The unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic has had major impact on human health worldwide. Whilst national and international COVID-19 lockdown and travel restriction measures have had widespread negative impact on economies and mental health, they may have beneficial effect on the environment, reducing air and water pollution. Mass bathing events (MBE) also known as Kumbh Mela are known to cause perturbations of the ecosystem affecting resilient bacterial populations within water of rivers in India. Lockdowns and travel restrictions provide a unique opportunity to evaluate the impact of minimum anthropogenic activity on the river water ecosystem and changes in bacterial populations including antibiotic-resistant strains. We performed a spatiotemporal meta-analysis of bacterial communities of the Godavari River, India. Targeted metagenomics revealed a 0.87-fold increase in the bacterial diversity during the restricted activity of lockdown. A significant increase in the resilient phyla, viz. Proteobacteria (70.6%), Bacteroidetes (22.5%), Verrucomicrobia (1.8%), Actinobacteria (1.2%) and Cyanobacteria (1.1%), was observed. There was minimal incorporation of allochthonous bacterial communities of human origin. Functional profiling using imputed metagenomics showed reduction in infection and drug resistance genes by − 0.71-fold and − 0.64-fold, respectively. These observations may collectively indicate the positive implications of COVID-19 lockdown measures which restrict MBE, allowing restoration of the river ecosystem and minimise the associated public health risk.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00248-021-01781-0.

Basic methodical provisions for swimming training of students higher education institutions

Analysis of data on swimming training and determination of system components allow to assert the need to do appropriate methodical support. Purpose: to generalize the content of the basic methodical provisions of swimming training for integration into the education system of students higher education institutions. Research methods: theoretical analysis and generalization, study of documentary materials, system analysis. Results. It is recommended to division of classes into the following types: training, training-game, game, individual training, control, mass bathing. This step is done for providing methodically correct swimming training. Significant experience in the implementation of swimming training tasks for different groups of population is defined by the availability of thorough information of educational and methodical nature. The issue of swimming training as an integral part of personal development has received considerable attention since the middle of the twentieth century. In the sequence of training, in addition of stages, it is necessary to provide the degree of assimilation educational material. In general, we can offer a scheme in the form of "new element - development - consolidation - control - a new element." In the educational process, it is recommended to form at students a sufficient arsenal of specific swimming actions. There was identified need to combine technical exercises into complexes defined by target installations. Changing the speed of movement, tempo-rhythmic execution of movements (in full coordination or different biolanks) are regulators for observance of methodical tasks. Conclusions. The generalization of scientific and methodical literature gives us reason to assert the existence of an extremely large number of information sources on swimming training for different groups of the population. In order to avoid duplication of fundamental approaches to swimming training and adhering to the paradigm of this process in the methodical component should focus on the content of successive tasks of different individual and motivational levels of the swimming training system for students. To swimming training of student youth and maintain content priorities, it is necessary to focus on achieving a certain level of skill in accordance with the goals of a certain individual and motivational level of classes. The basic prerequisites are the laying the broad technical base, which provides mastering and improvement different ways of swimming techniques and gradual increase of physical fitness and improvement of the physical qualities development.

Comprehensive metagenomic insights into a unique mass gathering and bathing event reveals transient influence on a riverine ecosystem

The religious mass gathering and bathing can pose a multitude of significant public health challenges and lead to severe alterations in the river microbial ecology. The Pandharpur Wari is an annual pilgrimage of Maharashtra, India, where millions of devotees carry the footprints of the saint-poets and pay their obeisance to Lord Vitthal on the 11th day of moon's waxing phase (Ashadi Ekadashi). As a part of the ritual, the engrossed devotees, walk over 250 km, take a first holy dip in a sacred river Indrayani at Alandi and secondly in Bhima River at Pandharpur. The MinION-based shotgun metagenomic approach was employed to examine the impact of spiritual mass bathing on environmental changes (concerning the river microbial community structure and functions); and public health aspects (in terms of changes in the pathogenic potential and antibiotic resistance). The analysis of bathing and post-bathing samples of both the rivers revealed alterations in the alpha and beta diversity, indicating significant spatiotemporal variations in the overall microbial structure and function. Furthermore, the analysis revealed up to 80% of differences in the abundance of virulence genes between the bathing and post bathing samples. We observed parallel increase of priority skin and enteric pathogens (ranging from 11% to 80%) such as Acinetobacter baumannii, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa during the bathing event. Moreover, we observed a significant increase in the antibiotic resistance in the bathing samples of Bhima and Indrayani rivers respectively. Altogether, this is the first comprehensive metagenomic study unravelling the influence of religious mass-bathing on the riverine ecosystem.

Self-cleansing properties of Ganga during mass ritualistic bathing on Maha-Kumbh.

The deterioration of water quality of river Ganga is a huge concern for Govt. of India. Apart from various pollution sources, the religious and ritualistic activities also have a good share in deteriorating Ganga water quality. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the changes in physico-chemical properties, microbial diversity and role of bacteriophages in controlling bacterial population of Ganga water during mass ritualistic bathing on the occasion of Maha-Kumbh in 2013. The BOD, COD, hardness, TDS and level of various ions significantly increased, while DO decreased in Ganga water during Maha-Kumbh. Ganga water was more affluent in trace elements than Yamuna and their levels further increased during Maha-Kumbh, which was correlated with decreased level of trace elements in the sediment. The bacterial diversity and evenness were increased and correlated with the number of devotees taking a dip at various events. Despite enormous increase in bacterial diversity during mass ritualistic bathing, the core bacterial species found in pre-Kumbh Ganga water were present in all the samples taken during Kumbh and post-Kumbh. In addition, the alteration in bacterial population during mass bathing was well under 2 log units which can be considered negligible. The study of bacteriophages at different bathing events revealed that Ganga was richer with the presence of bacteriophages in comparison with Yamuna against seven common bacteria found during the Maha-Kumbh. These bacteriophages have played a role in controlling bacterial growth and thus preventing putrefaction of Ganga water. Further, the abundance of trace elements in Ganga water might also be a reason for suppression of bacterial growth. Thus, the current study showed that Ganga has characteristic water quality in terms of physico-chemical property and microbial diversity that might have a role in the reported self-cleansing property of Ganga; however, the increased pollution load has surpassed its self-cleansing properties. Since water has been celebrated in all cultures, the outcome of the current study will not only be useful for the policy maker of cleaning and conservation of Ganga but also for restoration of other polluted rivers all over the world.

Mass bathing events in River Kshipra, Central India- influence on the water quality and the antibiotic susceptibility pattern of commensal E.coli

Antibiotic resistance is one of the major global health emergencies. One potential source of dissemination of resistant bacteria is mass gatherings, e.g. mass bathing events. We evaluated the physicochemical parameters of water quality and the antibiotic resistance pattern in commensal Escherichia coli from river-water and river-sediment in pre-, during- and post-mass bathing events in river Kshipra, Central India. Water and sediment samples were collected from three selected points during eight mass bathing events during 2014-2016. Water quality parameters (physical, chemical and microbiological) were analyzed using standard methods. In river water and sediment samples, antibiotic susceptibility patterns of isolated E. coli to 17 antibiotics were tested. pH, turbidity and dissolved oxygen were significantly lower and total dissolved solid, free carbon dioxide were higher during mass bathing, whilst TSS, BOD and COD were lowest in pre-bathing and highest in post-bathing period. E.coli with multi drug resistance (MDR) or extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) production were between 9-44% and 6-24%, respectively in river-water as well as river-sediment. Total coliform count/ml and E. coli count were higher during-and post-bathing in river water than in pre-bathing period. Thus, the percentage of resistance was significantly higher during and post-bathing period (p<.05) than in pre-bathing. Colony forming unit (CFU)/ml in river-sediment was much higher than in river-water. Percentage of resistance was significantly higher in river-water (p<.05) than in river-sediment. Antibiotic resistance in E.coli isolated from the Kshipra River showed significant variation during mass bathing events. Guidelines and regulatory standards are needed to control environmental dissemination of resistant bacteria.

Monitoring the spatio-temporal impact of small tributaries on the hydrochemical characteristics of Ramganga River, Ganges Basin, India

ABSTRACTSurface waters are one of the most easily pollutable natural resources because of their high mobility and universal solvent nature. One of the most severe environmental problems is the deterioration of the surface water quality due to rapid industrialization and urbanization. In India, surface water pollution is a major problem. The Ramganga River Basin, an essential sub-basin of the Ganges Basin, has been facing water quality problems as it flows through a densely populated and a large industrial area of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh in India. This study focused on the impact of smaller tributaries, namely Binau, Gagas, Deota, Mandal, Kho, Phika, Dhela, Kosi, Bhakra and Baigul on the hydrochemical characterization of the Ramganga River which in turns affects the water quality of the Ganges River. To this end, water samples from 10 tributaries of the Ramganga River were collected and analysed during the pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon periods of 2014. These water samples were analysed to determine various physicochemical and heavy metal characteristics. Concentration of turbidity (2252 NTU), electrical conductivity (EC: 975 µS/m), total dissolved solids (TDS: 529 mg/L), fluoride (F−: 3.47 mg/L), calcium (Ca2+: 108 mg/L), bicarbonate (HCO3−: 360 mg/L), iron (Fe: 126.58 mg/L), manganese (Mn: 2.490 mg/L) and chemical oxygen demand (COD: 77.98 mg/L) in the middle and lower regions of the Ramganga Basin, found to be higher than their prescribed limits of World Health Organization (WHO). These results could be due to increased effluent loading from wastewater discharges from the nearby urban settlement, sacred mass bathing points and agricultural runoff in tributaries.

Antimicrobial resistance pattern of microorganisms isolated and identified from Godavari River across the mass gathering event

The Kumbh Mela is considered the world's largest mass gathering event (MGE). It represents a unique anthropogenic burden on the river ecosystem and may confer antimicrobial resistance among microbial communities. The present study explains the characterization of microbial isolates associated with Godavari River under the advent of the mass bathing event using culture dependent approach. The isolates were identified by sequencing of 16S rRNA gene and ITS region. Further, the isolates were screened for antibiotic susceptibility against 22 antibiotics using disc diffusion method. A total of 63 bacterial and 21 fungal isolates were isolated under the temporal variation of the event. Kocuria and Staphylococcus were the most prevalent bacterial genera in the samples collected before and during the event, while Meyerozyma and Candida predominate among fungal communities. A group of antibiotics impeding the bacterial protein synthesis were found to be most effective against greater than or equal to 67% of bacterial isolates. However, greater than or equal to 37-67% of isolates could escape the action of inhibitors of bacterial cell wall synthesis. Moreover, bacterial isolates belonging to genera Acinetobacter, Corynebacterium and Brevibacterium showed higher resistance towards the antibiotics. Observations from the current study suggest likely microbial taxa as targets to mitigate the waterborne infections during the MGE.

The pristine nature of river Ganges: its qualitative deterioration and suggestive restoration strategies.

The river Ganges, the National Heritage, and the lifeline of millions of Indians, unfortunately, ranked the second most polluted rivers of the world in 2017. This review reveals the current trends of the water quality of the Ganges assessed around 36 stretches during 2012-2016, to indicate an improvement around 6 (16.7%), deterioration around 14 (38.9%), and non-significant changes around 16 (44.4%) stretches. An increase in dissolved oxygen and a decrease in biochemical oxygen demand were observed at six stretches (Devprayag [S5], Rishikesh upstream [S7], Varanasi upstream [S19], Mokama upstream [S25], Mokama downstream [S26], and Munger [S27]). The total and fecal coliform contamination decreased at seven stretches (Rudraprayag [S2 and S3], Devprayag [S5 and S6], Rishikesh [S7], Varanasi upstream [S19], and Munger [S27]) due to improved hygienic conditions, but it increased subsequently at eight stretches (Haridwar [S8], Kanpur [S15], Raibareili [S16], Prayagraj [S17 and S18], Patna [S24], Berhampore [S30], and Serampore [S31]) due to improper defecation and mass bathing during 2007-2016. Dissolved oxygen level declined significantly, and biochemical oxygen demand increased (> 3 ppm), alarmingly at places receiving heavy untreated sewage water. The water quality of the Ganges was good up to Rishikesh, because of an undisrupted flow of the uncontaminated water from the higher altitudes (≥ 372 m) with higher forest cover, lower temperatures (< 21 °C), and higher dissolved oxygen (≥ 8.5 ppm) and due to the dissolution of antipathogenic chemical constituents of the medicinal herbs, pollutant degrading alkaline phosphatase, and bacteriophages. The present review is a systematic collection of data on river pollution, its scientific analyses, and its relationship with 6Ps (namely population, poverty, pollution, precipitation, plantation, and periodicity). Not only that, but the river water restoration measures have also suggested through the novel interlinked water working groups for implementing integrated water management strategies.

Evaluation of mass bathing effects on water quality status of eight prominent ponds of Haryana (India): A multi-location study

Amongst the various anthropogenic activities, mass bathing and other religious rituals also affect the water quality of aquatic ecosystem. The present research has been conducted to evaluate the impact of mass bathing and other religious activities on the eight famous religious water bodies of Haryana (Kapalmochan tirth, Kulotarn tirth, Ban-Ganga tirth, Brahmsarovar, Jyotisar, Saraswati tirth, Phalgu tirth and Pandu-Pindara tirth). The water samples were collected from three sampling stations (A, B and C) at each of the eight selected sites (S1 to S8) before and after the religious rituals and also seasonally. The samples were analyzed for Dissolved oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) ammonia and heavy metals . The study highlighted the seasonal variations of physicochemical characteristics and also the effects of mass bathing and religious activities on water quality of the religious sites. Although the water was reported as safe in terms of DO content, total ammonia, BOD and the values of COD before the religious rituals but the values exceeded the maximum permissible limit {DO (0.8±0.1, 0.76±0.11), BOD (25.07±0.13, 18.13±0.13),COD (131.9±2.08), Ammonia (2.31±.23, 6.57±0.02) Iron (5890 µg L-1) and Zinc (200 µg L-1)} after mass bathing and religious rituals indicating that the water was not suitable for drinking as well as bathing purposes after the rituals/mass bathing. So, bathing during/after such rituals may become a health hazards to the bathers or users of the water and also may affect the aquatic biota, further depleting it. There is thus a need of regular monitoring and regular application of suitable remedial measures to prevent the depletion of the quality of lentic waters.

Metagenomic insights to understand transient influence of Yamuna River on taxonomic and functional aspects of bacterial and archaeal communities of River Ganges

River confluences are interesting ecosystems to investigate for their microbial community structure and functional potentials. River Ganges is one of the most important and holy river of India with great mythological history and religious significance. The Yamuna River meets Ganges at the Prayagraj (formerly known as Allahabad), India to form a unique confluence. The influence of Yamuna River on taxonomic and functional aspects of microbiome at this confluence and its downstream, remains unexplored. To unveil this dearth, whole metagenome sequencing of the microbial (bacterial and archaeal) community from the sediment samples of December 2017 sampling expedition was executed using high throughput MinION technology. Results revealed differences in the relative abundance of bacterial and archaeal communities across the confluence. Grouped by the confluence, a higher abundance of Proteobacteria and lower abundance of Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes was observed for Yamuna River (G15Y) and at immediate downstream of confluence of Ganges (G15DS), as compared to the upstream, confluence, and farther downstream of confluence. A similar trend was observed for archaeal communities with a higher abundance of Euryarchaeota in G15Y and G15DS, indicating Yamuna River's influence. Functional gene(s) analysis revealed the influence of Yamuna River on xenobiotic degradation, resistance to toxic compounds, and antibiotic resistance interceded by the autochthonous microbes at the confluence and succeeding downstream locations. Overall, similar taxonomic and functional profiles of microbial communities before confluence (upstream of Ganges) and farther downstream of confluence, suggested a transient influence of Yamuna River. Our study is significant since it may be foundational basis to understand impact of Yamuna River and also rare event of mass bathing on the microbiome of River Ganges. Further investigation would be required to understand, the underlying cause behind the restoration of microbial profiles post-confluence farther zone, to unravel the rejuvenation aspects of this unique ecosystem.

Pollution and its consequences at Ganga Sagar mass bathing in India

Sagar Island is the largest island of Indian Sundarban, which hosts Ganga Sagar Mela (GSM). GSM is the second largest gathering (mass bathing) in India after Kumbha Mela. The total population of Sagar Island is more than 2.12 lakh. During GSM, another 20 lakh visit the island to take holy dip at the confluence of the River Ganges at Bay of Bengal. Physicochemical and bacteriological analysis of water and soil was carried out to estimate the pollution caused by this mass gathering. This is the first report addressing the relationship between the soil qualities and nearby canal water qualities during Post-GSM period regarding pollution. Study illustrates a massive change in water quality characteristics in Post-GSM period compared to the Pre-GSM condition. Results of different parameters like dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD), nitrate, phosphate, fecal coliform and total coliform indicate extreme level of water quality degradation on the beach and canal water caused by untreated sewage, organic waste materials and fecal matters. Different parameters and water quality index indicated that pollution of beach water caused mainly due to direct discharge of enormous volume of canal water into the sea during the Post-GSM and worst water quality noticed at Sagar Canal just beside the Kapil Muni Ashram. DO, BOD and total coliform values suggest that beach water is not suitable for outdoor bathing in Post-GSM. Also, health survey indicates an increase in bacteriological diseases immediately after Post-GSM period in the nearby villagers. A real concern with sustainable management strategies can only address this issue to protect the people and the ecosystem.

World's Largest Mass Bathing Event Influences the Bacterial Communities of Godavari, a Holy River of India.

Kumbh Mela is one of the largest religious mass gathering events (MGE) involving bathing in rivers. The exponential rise in the number of devotees, from around 0.4 million in 1903 to 120 million in 2013, bathing in small specified sites can have a dramatic impact on the river ecosystem. Here, we present the spatiotemporal profiling of bacterial communities in Godavari River, Nashik, India, comprising five sites during the Kumbh Mela, held in 2015. Assessment of environmental parameters indicated deterioration of water quality. Targeted amplicon sequencing demonstrates approximately 37.5% loss in microbial diversity because of anthropogenic activity during MGE. A significant decrease in phyla viz. Actinobacteria, Chloroflexi, Proteobacteria, and Bacteroidetes was observed, while we noted substantial increase in prevalence of the phylum Firmicutes (94.6%) during MGE. qPCR estimations suggested nearly 130-fold increase in bacterial load during the event. Bayesian mixing model accounted the source of enormous incorporation of bacterial load of human origin. Further, metagenomic imputations depicted increase in virulence and antibiotic resistance genes during the MGE. These observations suggest the striking impact of the mass bathing on river ecosystem. The subsequent increase in infectious diseases and drug-resistant microbes pose a critical public health concern.