Masonry Techniques Research Articles

INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDY FOR KNOWLEDGE AND DATING OF THE SAN FRANCESCO CONVENT IN STAMPACE, CAGLIARI – ITALY (XIII-XXI CENTURY)

Abstract. The Franciscan monastery, situated in the historic center of Cagliari (Sardinia), was founded in the thirteenth century, and transformed during the later centuries, up to the present day. The complexity of the case and the lack of objective data about its history has led us to carry out an interdisciplinary inquiry, in order to achieve a better knowledge of the building, preliminary for the drafting of a restoration project that respects all the signs that the time left. Starting from a deep examination of the indirect sources, turned out to be incomplete, the investigation continued with the execution of a survey with laser scanner and with the characterization of materials and related diseases of degradation. For the laser scanner survey we used a Faro Focus 3D, versatile and lightweight instrument that allows to perform scans with high speed point acquisition and high accuracy. For data elaboration we used the JRC 3D Reconstructor Software by the Gexcel srl. The characterization of the materials was performed on a reasoned sampling of natural and artificial materials, referring to masonry, interstitial mortars and plasters, carried out at strategic points, representative of the various phases of the construction. The samples were studied through mineralogical-petrographic methods with instrumental techniques for the analysis of component materials (OM, X-Ray diffraction). The data obtained, crossed with the results of the reconstruction of historical maps, of the examination of masonry techniques and of the analysis of pattern elements (arches, vaults, decorative elements), have facilitated stratigraphic analysis and helped to advance chronological reasoned hypothesis referring to the building. Besides, an interdisciplinary approach for the study of cultural heritage is very important to define a proper restoration and conservation intervention.

Procedures and Techniques Used to Increase the Durability of Weak Masonries with Clay Mortars

For the past decades the importance of structural rehabilitation of historical buildings, in order to preserve the cultural heritage, has increased considerably. The weak masonry (made from bricks and bounded with low-strength mortars) were created using mortars which, depending on different external factors, were degraded and there are necessary urgent rehabilitation interventions in order to assure the masonrys durability by protecting the joints with new, compatible and reversible materials and techniques (according to Venice charter requirements). In order to increase the durability characteristics of the weak masonry, the design and application techniques of some particular materials and solutions used will be considered in present paper. The used procedures are based on joints reinforcing using fibre reinforced mortar (fibres made of steel, carbon and glass). The test results have revealed a significant improvement of the structural response and a noticeable increased durability depending on the materials and techniques used.

Earthquake-resistant performance investigation for rural buildings in Zhongxiang area, China

We carried out a census of the rural residential buildings of Zhongxiang area’s 17 towns. Next, we conducted a sample survey in four townships: Huji, Shipai, Zhangji, and Jiuli. According to the census and sample survey data of the rural residence buildings, we evaluated the quality and earthquake-resistant performance of the rural buildings for the various local rural residential structural types. The results showed that there are four main factors affecting the seismic performance of the local rural residences: (1) Foundations are not made appropriately (such as by compaction or some other fill) but are built directly in the farming soil. (2) Seismic measures are not completely implemented. Structure construction measures are not in place at the junction of the vertical and horizontal wall. The vertical wall joints are not the result of the same masonry techniques as the horizontal joints. There are no lintels above the door and window openings, or if there are any, the length of the lintels is less than 240 mm. (3) The brick masonry wall has low strength. The greatest housing wall mortar strength is between M 0. 4–1.5, much lower than the strength of the brick. (4) The building material and construction quality are poor. The quality of the mortar masonry wall is poor. The cracks between the bricks are uneven, even in the seams.

Building stones used in early mediaeval edifices of Krakow and geology of the area

The early mediaeval period witnessed a considerable breakdown in masonry techniques and in architecture in the Polish territory: the application of stone and developing of skills of shaping rocks into regular cuboid stone bricks.Only local stones quarried within a distance of ca. 15 km from Krakow were used in early mediaeval edifices in the city. They were: two varieties of limestones (Upper Jurassic) and three varieties of sandstones of the Carpathian flysch (Cretaceous to Palaeogene). Sedimentary environments (facies) and post-sedimentary processes determined compactness, block divisibility and workability of stones, which, further on, determined their application. Thin bedded sandstone and platy limestone yielded easily workable and relatively small (few to a dozen of centimetres in length) and quite regular bricks used in the earliest buildings. Rocky limestone was a source of irregularly shaped clumps used initially as a filler of walls erected in the opus emplectum technique. Later, it was used also for cutting larger (few tens of centimetres), more regular blocks. Bedded limestone was a good material for obtaining larger (a dozen or two dozens of centimetres) regular bricks used widely throughout the whole early mediaeval period. Blocks (2 or more metres in length) of soft dimension Carpathian sandstone were used for shaping and carving large elements: tombstones, columns, volutes, epitaphs, etc.Techniques of quarrying and stone working developed considerable with time. Initially, slope scree and stone from demolished older ramparts were used. Later, quarries reached deeper beds which yielded larger bricks and blocks. Stone sources migrated with time too. The earliest places of excavation were located within the city, e.g. on the Wawel, Skalka and Krzemionki hills. When those deposits were exhausted, mining moved to more distant spots.

고대 로마건축의 석축기법에 관한 연구

The purpose of this study is to research the characteristics of masonry techniques on Roman ancient architecture. Opus so means masonry, has many types and techniques and still we use that word. Roman masonry technique appears to be very diverse kinds throughout to try and change the outcome of new technology. Depending on the use of materials the process can distinguished in three courses. First, just use only stones and bricks. Second is the use of concrete that is advanced to cement structure. Third is the use of air-dried bricks and grilled bricks. Roman masonry ranges of techniques not limited to the construction of the resulting but created a variety of architectural language. Architectural space is based on a comprehensive development of masonry techniques.

THE CHARACTERISTICS AND TRANSFORMATION OF STUPAS PLINTHS ON BUDDHIST TEMPLES IN TAXILA

This study discusses the transformation of stupas in the Gandhara Buddhist temples focusing plinth forms and masonry techniques. The third article takes up the remains of three archaeological sites, Butkara I, Saidu Sharif I and Nimogram, located in Swat where is the north region of Gandhara in the broad meaning. This article covers the field survey of stupas which was conducted based on the excavations researches carried out at Swat by the Italian Team, IsMEO and the Department of Archaeologiy and Museums, Pakistan. Consequently, same as Central Gandhara's and Taxila's three types of features were found in Swat i.e. one-story type, two-story type and step-down type. The Swat's characteristic features are as follows: one-story type is majorority, few step-down type, a use of green schist only for decoration parts, engraved stone, reuse or diversion of stone members.

THE CHARACTERISTICS AND TRANSFORMATION OF STUPAS PLINTHS ON BUDDHIST TEMPLES IN CENTRAL GANDHARA

This study discusses the transformation of stupas in the Gandhara Buddhist temples focusing plinth forms and masonry techniques. The first article studies the remains of two archaeological sites, Ranigat and Takht-i-bahi, located in “Central Gandhara” where is the core region of Gandhara in the broad meaning. It was found 1) the plinth forms are categorized into three such as one-story type, two-story type, step-down type, 2) one-story and step-down types are common in Ranigat site and two-story type in Takht-i-bahi site, and 3) the transitions of masonry techniques of two sites have commonality.

THE ART OF BUILDING IN MILAN DURING LATE ANTIQUITY: SAN LORENZO MAGGIORE

This study of the complex of San Lorenzo in Milan draws on archaeological and archaeometric evidence. It presents the results of a recent investigation into late antique masonry techniques at San Lorenzo, which looked at stone and brick masonry techniques, the various type of foundation systems and the building techniques responsible for the structure as a whole. The archaeological element of the paper is based on a stratigraphical analysis of the entire complex, including its stone foundations, pavements, brickwork, vaulting and plasterwork; research on bricklaying, stone-cutting and masonry techniques; and the dating of its windows, doors, and frames. At the same time, the archaeometric aspect of the paper comprises the typological categorisation of the building materials identified at the site. These include stones, bricks, and the ingredients of bonding sections, mortar work and plastering. The origins and dating of these materials will also be an important part of the paper. Dating was carried out using TL and 14C methods.

THE TECHNIQUES AND COMPOSITION OF PRASAT SUOR PRAT TOWER N1

Prasat Sour Prat tower N1 is masonry structure and the main material was used by Laterite blocks. The inclination and deteriorations are appeared on this ruin. However, N1 tower is keeping standing condition until now.On the previous report was focused at the foundation and platform of N1 tower. Then, continuously, on this report is studying of architectural techniques in upper structure which are based on knowledge from conservation and restoration works. Especially, the main material; Laterite block and those masonry techniques are paid attention. The durability of this building has been supported by these techniques. And the study of laterite block mason is not so many cases. That is why the architectural technique of N1 tower should be studied.

How Did the Romans Install Revetment?

Remnants of the materials the Romans used for attaching stone revetment are commonplace. Although these remains are familiar, they also represent procedures and intentions different from modern masonry techniques. How the Roman masons applied revetment, and why they used the equipment and materials they did, remain moot. Especially mysterious are the shims pressed deeply into the bedding mortar, usually around the edge of each revetment panel. Not only do these interrupt the smooth surface of the setting mortar, but also they reduce the amount of adhesion available to hold the revetment panel in place. Using observations in Rome, Ostia, Tivoli, and Pompeii, a complete reappraisal of the process of installing revetment has been conducted. Results indicate that the shims helped the masons overcome the high viscosity of the mortar as they adjusted a revetment panel into its final position, reducing the amount of mortar that needed to be shifted and making it easier to displace. The metal clamps served to lock the panel precisely into position, not to support its weight. This thesis has been tested with a detailed dynamic model, systematically recreating each step in the installation of Roman revetment, carefully studying the behavior of the materials as they interacted with each other. The model clearly (and irritatingly) illustrated the challenges faced by the Roman masons, especially the way viscous mortar resists displacement, making fine adjustment of the revetment panel difficult. It also became clear, however, that the actual devices used by the Roman masons, specifically the shims and clamps, do indeed solve the problems posed by the mortar. It is, then, a very short leap of faith to conclude that solving those problems is, in fact, why the Roman masons used their distinctive techniques.

Bell Towers and Building Workshops in Medieval Rome

Thirty-five medieval bell towers, along with dozens of churches such as S. Clemente, S. Crisogono, S. Maria in Trastevere, and S. Lorenzo fuori le mura, survive as testimony to a boom in ecclesiastical construction in Rome during the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries. This article focuses on these bell towers, using computer database analysis of their architectural and decorative features to investigate the nature of building workshops in medieval Rome. A comparison of a number of variable features among the bell towers, such as masonry techniques, cornices, and decorative details, uncovered patterns of similarities and differences which may be attributed to workshop practices. Four distinct groups of bell towers are identified on the basis of these features, which I suggest are evidence of the existence of four workshops of brick masons active in bell tower construction in Rome between the early twelfth and the thirteenth centuries. Finally, the article addresses the question of specialization within medieval Rome's building industry and the circumstances behind a rapid decline around 1200 in bell tower building and the fate of the workshops that built them. I observe that by the early thirteenth century, certain prestigious architectural commissions, such as the cloisters at the Lateran and S. Paolo f.l.m., were not given to workshops of brick masons, but to marble workers.

Masonry Techniques in Medieval Rome, c. 1080–c. 1300

TECNICHE MURARIE MEDIEVALI A ROMAIn questo articolo si discutono le tecniche murarie usate a Roma nel periodo c. 1080–c. 1300: opere murarie—con o senza riempitura a calce degli interstizi (stilatura), falsa cortina–e con modulo variato; opus listatum (opus mixtum), con l'uso di tufi e mattoni; opus saracinescum, solo di tufelli. Le variazioni di modulo possono servire a datare a tre periodi le opere murarie medievali: c. 1080–c. 1216; c. 1216–c. 1246; c. 1246–c. 1300. La stilatura sembra fosse il marchio distintivo di certe imprese costruttrici; fu usata tra c. 1080–c. 1200; nel XII secolo si trova ancora tra i conci rastremati. Mentre l'opus listatum apparve c. 1080–c. 1200, l'opus saracinescum era più tipico nel XIII e XIV secolo. Le tecniche murarie erano a volte relative alla funzione di un edificio—chiesa, palazzo, monastero, torre o casa, oppure al fatto che il muro fosse nelle fondamenta o sopra il livello del terreno.In questo articolo l'autore riesamina l'opera di M. E. Avagnina, V. Garibaldi e D. Salterini, ‘Strutture murarie degli edifici religiosi di Roma nel XII secolo’, Rivista dell'Istituto Nazionale d'Archeologia e Storia dell'Arte, XXIII–XXIV (1976–77) 173 sgg. Nella Tabella II sono riassunte le informazioni contenute in tale opera. Le osservazioni dell'autore si trovano nella Tabella I. Le techniche murarie qui discusse e il loro uso nella Roma medievale sono illustrate alla Tabella III.

Villard de Honnecourt, Archimedes, and Chartres

THE techniques of Gothic masonry construction can best be studied in two ways. The monuments themselves unquestionably provide the best evidence of the procedures that were actually employed, although accurate measured drawings, the sine qua non of this approach, are difficult and costly to make, and they fail to reveal anything beneath the surface of a building, precisely where masons' setting-out marks are most likely to be concealed. One cannot wish that more Gothic churches will be destroyed so historians of architecture may prowl among the ruins, looking for indications as to how they were erected. The second approach comprises the study of the rare texts and documents that have been preserved from the Middle Ages. Foremost among these is the manual of the thirteenthcentury Picard architect, Villard de Honnecourt, which contains a set of diagrams of masonry techniques drawn and annotated by an anonymous follower known as Master 2, about 1250.1 These diagrams sometimes seem very hypothetical, however, and many still hold secrets for the modern reader. Three in particular-the keystones del tiirc and del quint point, and the so-called Archimedes spiral (p. 40 c-2, d, e in fig. 8) -have never been satisfactorily explained. The last one has the dubious honor of being the single diagram Master 2 did not annotate, but by extraordinary good fortune, similar spirals have been preserved on the bed-face of a capital from Chartres Cathedral.2 It is therefore possible to compare the manuscript figure with one that seems actually to have been employed in the construction of a Gothic monument.