Masonry Technique Research Articles

RESEARCH OF THE DEFENSIVE HIGH WALL AND PROBABLE RELICS OF THE PRINCE'S RESIDENCE IN THENORTH-EASTERN PART OF LVIV'S MIDTOWN

The author describes the architectural and archaeological research conducted by him, or with his participation, of objects in the north-eastern part of the lviv's midtown, which probably belong to the period of the formation of a new part of the city, intended for the capital of the Rus kingdom (mid. XIII - mid. XIV c.). Described: 1 - features of a well-preserved fragment of the defensive high wall of the city, indicating its construction on a previously uninhabited area; 2 - mysterious relics of the original layout and elements of the late Romanesque architecture of the representative building, which was later incorporated into the monastic ensemble; 3 - masonry features and construction periodization of the circle of the main courtyard of the Dominican monastery, indicating two early stages of its construction: 2 half XIII century and the beginning 15th century; 4 – an archaeologically uncovered section of a part of a high wall, which had a distinctly representative character; 5 – a stone underground liturgical chest behind the main altar of the Church. A cursory historiographical review of the circumstances surrounding the establishment of the Dominican monastery in Lviv and a new interpretation of the sources in the light of the findings presented have been added. The research adds new arguments in favor of the localization of the palace-residence of Prince Lev Danylovych in this part of the Midtown, and it is even quite confident to interpret the preserved building structures and architectural elements as his relics. Key words: formation of Midtown, high defensive wall, princely palace-residence; Dominican monastery, masonry technique.

Main characteristics of burial complexes of Central Kazakhstan in the Late Bronze Age

The main factual basis of the research comprised the materials of 25 necropoleis of the Late Bronze Age examined in the Karaganda and Ulytau regions of Central Kazakhstan. The total number of the investigated burials amounts to 167 individual structures. There were 190 burials recorded. Since the 2000s, nine cemeteries belonging to the Late Bronze Age have been investigated. There were 72 burial structures studied, including one of the eight largest mausoleums in the region — Karazhar-tas, excavated in 2016–2017. All known burial structures were divided into three groups: surface stone boxes, boxes imbedded in the bedrock, and ground graves, which, according to the characteristic above-ground structures, were divided into ten types of burial structures. It has been noted that for the first group of the burials, the most characteristic are quadrangular funeral structures erected using the masonry technique. The second group is dominated by quadrangular fences built from vertically set slabs, less often from stone laid on flat. The third group is clearly dominated by a ring-shaped layout in the form of the stones selected according to their dimensions, laid in a circle. The most numerous appeared to be the first group, for which the charac-teristic feature is the arrangement of the burial chambers in the form of stone boxes raised above the ground. The less repre-sentative was the second group with subsurface burials, including those that had a form of composite stone boxes. The third group comprised the burials in ground graves. It is assumed that in the first two groups, the westward orientation of the interred is predominant, with a certain role of the northeastern sector. The third group is characterised by the invariable orientation of the deceased in a southward direction with the sleeping position of the skeleton laid on the right side.

Remodelling a Medieval Net Vault Construction •

In the present study, we analysed the exact, laser-scanned geometry of the apse vault of the catholic church of Andocs. The written sources about this vault are very limited, however, the point cloud-based research could provide new details about the history of the building, along with the formerly used building techniques. For the analysis, we worked based on our three-step analysis process, established for net vaults. During the studying of the rib system, we reconstructed the probable original construction and building method, as well as the temporary supporting structures of the early 16th-century vault. The analysis of the individual ribs led us to conclusions about this vault, in the mirror of the widespread ideas of the topic’s technical literature, such as the “Prinzipalbogen” theory (all the ribs of a given net vault have the same curvature), or the principle of the longest route (the cumulated length of the ribs’ plan, which led from the impost to the crown with the longest possible route equals to the radius of the ribs’ curvature). Regarding the curvilinear rib elements, we presumed a likely fabrication method, based on contemporary research results. Mapping the webbing and the ribs, we concluded their building order, as well as the plausible masonry technique of the webs.

A Multidisciplinary Methodology for Technological Knowledge, Characterization and Diagnostics: Sandstone Facades in Florentine Architectural Heritage

The Historic Center of Florence, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, includes many examples of architecture characterized by rough-hewn rusticated block facades—a very common masonry technique in the Florentine Renaissance—made in Pietraforte sandstone. The latter features numerous criticalities related to its intrinsic characteristics and to decay phenomena that are due to weathering and pollution. A multidisciplinary methodology has been developed starting from historic analysis and architectural survey to a complete optometric, mechanical, physical, mineralogical, and petrographic characterization of rough-hewn rusticated blocks, applied to the case study of the Palazzo Medici Riccardi facades. The studies performed in this work cover several research fields, from architecture to geology, going through material diagnostics, and aim at improving knowledge and designing new restoration solutions for Pietraforte building-material criticalities. The research proposes an operative protocol aimed at supporting restoration projects and monitoring plans, with the aim to protect historical, architectural, and artistic cultural heritage and to safeguard the people who visit the city of Florence every year.

Geoarchaeological Evidence of the Late Chalcolithic Circular Structure at Ovçular Tepesi in Nakhchivan

This article provides indirect evidence of the function of circular structures by focusing on the sedimentological process of the circular structures by the groups in the Late Chalcolithic period that occupied Ovçular Tepesi in Nakhchivan. Microstratigraphic has gained increasing importance in archaeological research and many studies. It has become an indispensable pillar of research methods, going beyond its role as an auxiliary method. The main scope of this study is considered not only as a way to reveal the physical structure of external factors experienced in the past but also as part of the process of understanding the extent and variability of human-environment interaction in the context of time-space. In addition to the microstratigraphic field studies conducted to determine the sedimentological deposition process of the circular structures in Ovçular Hill and to reveal the differentiation range in sedimentation, texture and SEM images and EDX analyzes were also supported in this study. Besides, determinations regarding the construction applications of circular structures such as masonry technique, plaster and soil floors were also shared.

First monument of stone architecture in Belarus, created in the Romanesque building tradition

The article for the first time proposed a new version of the origin of masters who were invited to build the Minsk temple. The article says that the masters could be invited from Germany (Saxony), and not from Poland, as previously thought.In 1949–1951 the archaeologist Vasil Tarasenka found the ruins of an unfinished temple on the territory of Minsk Castle (later this monument was studied by E. Zagarulsky, G. Shtykhaŭ and A. Miadzvedzeŭ). The foundation and lower parts of the walls of the temple are made of stone and are squared with stone tiles of a rectangular shape on a mortar. The masonry technique is Romanesque, characteristic of Western European architecture.The main controversy is the time of construction of the temple. Some researchers believe that this is the second half of the XI century, others believe that the first Minsk appanage prince Gleb began the construction at the beginning of the XII century.Based on Romanesque construction methods, it is believed that Polish craftsmen built the temple. The author for the first time expresses and justifies the German (Saxon) origin of the builders of the temple in Minsk.

Materializing Low-Cost Energy-Efficient Residential Utility through Effective Space Design and Masonry Technique - A Practical Approach

The swiftly mounting world energy consumption has sparked questions regarding supply constraints, the collapse of energy resources, and dense environmental effects. Although the construction industry has much developed, yet construction is still a difficult, and costly process. Consequently, there is a necessity to find additional energy-efficient and cost-saving substitutes to sustain the urbanization of houses at a reasonable price to low-income groups. This study aims to provide an energy-efficient proposal for a housing scheme with strict control over cost allowing the low-income groups to enjoy livability stemming from the thermally comfortable and cost-saving technology. For this purpose, visits and surveys were carried out to critically analyze the respective housing scheme. Two proposals were suggested i.e. Proposal A by applying a low-cost technique called a Rat-trap bond to the walls and Proposal B, by designing an architectural plan for proficient utilization of space along with Rat-trap bond. Proposal B is highly recommended for construction as it saves 799 units of electricity and is 28% cost-effective during the construction phase than the existing housing unit. Summarized results were prepared from cost analysis and Ecotect analysis which ascertains the proposal to be energy efficient in addition to low cost. It is recommended to invest in cost-effective and energy-efficient technologies at the governmental level so that the challenge of inadequate housing can be answered once and for all.

SPECIFICITIES OF THE MASONRY TECHNIQUE OF KYIVAN MONUMENTS OF THE XTH THE BEGINNING OF THE XIITH CENTURIES

The material presented above concerns the research of the concealed course technique used in Kyivan monuments of the Xth the beginning of the XIIth centuries and its origin.
 The concealed course technique presents the brickwork where the alternating brick courses are slightly recessed from the wall and covered by mortar, as a result, joints appear to be much thicker than they actually are.
 The earliest known monument where the concealed course technique that occurs in the Desyatynna church in Kyiv completed in 996, as well as the two palaces of the Xth c. nearby. The recessed brick technique is also used in Kyivan monuments of the XIth the beginning of the XIIth centuries: the St. Sophia Cathedral, the Golden Gate, St. George’s Church, St. Michael’s Church of Vydubytsky Monastery, the Assumption Cathedral and the Holy Trinity Gate Church of Pechersky Monastery, St.Michael’s Cathedral of the Golden Domes and some other buildings. The Church of Our Savior at Berestove, completed in the first quarter of the XIIth century is the last known Kyivan monument with the concealed course technique. The following Kyivan monuments – the Church of Our Lady Pyrohoshcha (1130’s) and the St. Cyril’s Church (1140’s) have coursed brick masonry.
 Apart from Kyiv the concealed course technique was used during the XIth - XIIth centuries in Chernihiv (the Cathedral of the Transfiguration), Pereyaslav (St. Michael’s Church), Novgorod (St. Sophia Cathedral and St. George’s Cathedral of St. George’s Monastery) and Polotsk (St. Sophia Cathedral).
 Bricks used in Kyivan monuments have their side dimensions 27 to 36 cm with prevailed dimensions 27 to 36 cm. The thickness of bricks increased from 2.5 – 3 cm at the end of the Xth – the beginning of the XIth centuries to 3.5 – 4.5 cm at the end of the XIth – the beginning of the XIIth centuries. The width of mortar strips between protruding brick courses varies from 9 to 12 cm.
 Walls in ancient Kyivan monuments were 1.1 to 1.3 meter thick. After the edifice was erected its outside and inside walls were covered with fine lime-and-ceramic plaster.
 
 Brunov was the first scholar who noticed peculiar masonry technique used in Kyivan and several Byzantine monuments. He considered the concealed course technique first appeared in ancient Kyiv and then was adopted at Constantinople. Some other scholars (e.g. P. Rappoport and P. Vocotopoulos) agree that the technique is of Constantinopolitan origin in spite of the absence of the monuments built in concealed course technique, dating to the Xth c. The fact that no early dated examples have been found at Constantinople should be attributed to the lack of monuments to be dated between 920s, when the Myrelaion Church was erected and the middle of the XIth century when the monastery of St.George at Mangana was founded.
 
 The oldest dated example of the concealed course technique known up to now in Constantinople is substructure of the St. George’s Church at Mangana. The other monument with the concealed course technique is the Panaghia Chalkeon Church in Salonika, dated by 1028 and is consequently earlier by approximately twenty years than the earliest dated examples of the technique in Constantinople. A lot of Byzantine monuments with the recessed brickwork dating back to the XIth – the XIIIth centuries could be found at Greece and Balkans.
 It is obvious that the concealed course technique originated in Byzantium as a result of development of Roman concrete facing of coursed brick. The technique was widely used in Byzantine provinces where brick was prevailing building material. Evidently the technique was developed already at the Xth century or even earlier, before it was adopted by ancient Kyivan builders. It appeared that concealed course technique could not be undoubtedly considered the hallmark of Constantinople but a widely spread medieval building practice.

Wood consumption and fixations of carbon dioxide and carbon from timber housing techniques: A Brazilian panorama

This paper evaluated lignocellulosic biomass volume, in net and gross forms, consumed by Brazilian wood-based housing producers by building technique, as well as net volumes of fixed carbon and carbon dioxide by built area. Net volumetric values of consumed wood per available technique were obtained for single-story house with 100 m2 of built area, whose data collection was supported by face-to-face interviews with Brazilian producers. Gross volumes were obtained according to wood machining yield described in literature. Determinations of fixed carbon and carbon dioxide were verified by means of net volumes per built area, being calculated from data collected in the interviews. In wood consumption for this standard 100 m2 house, most of construction techniques revealed average net volumes from 8 to 15 m3 and gross volumes from 15 to 24 m3 and from 13 to 21 m3, respectively, for 30% and 55% yields. In net volumes for 100 m2 house, the lowest wood consumption was 2 m3 (or 0.02 m3 per m2 of built area) obtained by two versions of nailed clapboard technique, while the highest amount of wood consumed was 34 m3 (0.34 m3/m2) for modular technique in cross-laminated timber. As regards carbon fixation, contemporary techniques mostly based on eucalypt and pine species ranged from 30 to 40 kgC/m2, while this range was from 35 to 55 kgC/m2 for traditional techniques largely made with natives. For native woods, the lowest carbon fixation was obtained by stick with masonry technique with paricá (12 kgC/m2), and the highest value was observed in log-home technique using sapucaia (92 kgC/m2). In exotics, modular for construction site with loblolly pine presented the lowest fixation (19 kgC/m2), and the possibility of modular technique in cross-laminated timber with blue spotted gum had the highest level (107 kgC/m2). High wood consumptions were influenced by obsolete production technologies and robust techniques, evincing expressive fixations.

Зодчество Чернигова конца XI — первой трети XII века в контексте средневизантийской строительной практики

The Dormition cathedral, St. Boris and Gleb church, the Prophet Elijah church, the northwest chapel attached to the Savior Cathedral and the civil building (presumably the Prince’s palace) share the features unprecedented in Chernigov and Old Russian architecture. The new masonry technique and Romanesque elements were introduced by the new master-builders: either from the Byzantine Empire, or from the North of Italy. The point of view attributing the Chernigov churches only to the West European builders appears to be controversial. Rather than Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna, the Byzantine building practice could be the source of the following Chernigov innovations: the masonry technique without the concealed courses of brick, groin vaults, engaged columns, stained glass, ornaments of the mosaic floor decorations, painted plaster on the facades, chapels in the narthex and the upper gallery. The atrophied Greek-cross church type of the Elijah church and the attached churches in Chernigov architecture strengthen the links with the Byzantine tradition. The complex of Byzantine construction technique and decoration indicates connection of the builders that worked in Chernigov with the Byzantine capital architecture or with some region where Constantinople left quite a strong impact. The only undisputable Romanesque feature is the Lombard band, but its application to the cross-in-square church with narthex strikes as irregular in comparison with accuracy of the West European practice. This unique combination of Byzantine and Romanesque features requires further study of the building process and the donor activity in Chernigov in the late 11th — first third of the12th century.

The Masonry Techniques Of A Historical Bridge In Hypokremnos (İçmeler)

This study focuses on characteristics of a historical bridge in Icmeler, Urla, Izmir. Urla, a historical settlement on the west of Izmir, has been part of a commercial network between Karaburun, Cesme and Anatolia throughout history. The aim is to understand the construction technique and material usage in Hypokremnos Bridge and identify a possible sequence of the original construction. The linear bridge was constructed by using masonry technique. It has three openings with various sizes and supported with rounded arches. The bridge wall is crowned with a road way making a crest at its center a inclined facade. This study is composed of four phases; documentation, analysis of construction technique and material usage, historical evaluation and restitution. In the first phase, by using Tgi3D Su Photoscan 2.13 and Trimble SketchUp 2013 software, three dimensional model was prepared. Visual analysis of construction technique and material usage was carried out and the mortar sample from the bridge was investigated in the conservation laboratory in the second phase. Three dimensional manual photogrammetric documentation of the historical bridge has provided the advantage of conceiving many constructional details. This condensed observation of constructional features supported with comparative study on historical bridges in Anatolia has revealed that the elements and composition of the studied bridge presents Roman characteristics, but the masonry techniques used recall those of Turkish period. The detailed data about structural system gathered from different locations of the bridge was used for the production of reconstitution of system detail. Reconstitution model of the bridge was produced by using reconstitution of system detail. To identify construction phases of the bridge, literature survey was carried out. According to structural elements and composition of the bridge, it is thought to be constructred in Roman Period, however, both the randomness in the composition of the rough cut lime stones used in the outer shells of the bridge wall, and lack of system in the form and color composition of the cut sand stones in the arches and the sea facade may be interpreted as an end result of a comprehensive repair on total reconstruction in the Turkish period.

Design and Engineering of a Dry Assembled Glass Block Pedestrian Bridge

Inspired by the glass masonry technique developed by the TU Delft Glass and Transparency Lab for the Crystal House in Amsterdam, a 14 meter span pedestrian bridge is envisioned, also consisting of cast glass elements. In contrast to the Crystal House project that employs an adhesively bonded glass block system, here dry assembly of the glass elements is proposed to allow for a demountable structure. To achieve this, a constant compression force is introduced in the bridge through its arch-shape. This compression force and a special interlocking geometry of the blocks will ensure the stability of the structure, like a medieval stone arch. The paper will discuss the exploratory design and engineering leading up to the construction of the first 3 meter span mock-up. This includes studies on the visual appearance of the bridge, studies on the glass block geometry, calculations on stresses in the glass elements, experiments on force transfer through dry-connected elements and mould design for casting of the complex geometries of the glass elements.

Evaluation of material properties by NDT methods and FEM analysis of a stone masonry arch bridge

Masonry is the oldest building technique that still finds wide use in today’s building industries. The variety and natural availability of the materials that is needed for masonry combined with the easiness of the construction, has resulted in usage of masonry for thousands of years. The lack of research and underdeveloped codes in masonry results in poor applications of masonry technique which causes invaluable loss of lives of people in earthquakes. Today modeling of stone masonry structures is still very difficult because of unknown material properties. This study focuses on estimation of the material properties by destructive testing methods (DT) and non-destructive testing methods (NDT) and analysis of a historic stone masonry arch bridge. After visual investigation, the geometry of the structure is determined and 3D model of the structure was generated and meshed for Finite Element Method (FEM). For evaluation of material properties, NDT methods such as; impact-echo and ultrasonic pulse velocity testing methods were used. Schmidt hammer test was applied for estimation of the hardness of the stones. Fallen stone and mortar samples from the bridge were taken to the laboratory and destructive tests applied on them to determine the properties of masonry components. The test results for the materials obtained from the DT and NDT methods were compared with each other. Using these results mechanical properties of the masonry were estimated using standards and codes. The gathered material properties were assigned to FE model and the model was analyzed.

Evaluation of Reinforcement and Analysis of Stability of a High-Arch Dam Based on Geomechanical Model Testing

Reinforcement measures are often used in high-arch dams with complicated geological foundations. The geomechanical model test is an effective method to study the global stability of arch dams and to evaluate the reinforcement effects of foundation treatments. The block masonry technique was developed to simulate the jointed rock mass, tectonic discontinuities, and reinforcement measures. A tailor-made low-strength binder and small blocks were developed to simulate the strength and deformation of the jointed rock mass and discontinuities, respectively. We applied this technique to geomechanical model tests of the Dagangshan arch dam with and without foundation reinforcements. A rupture test was conducted, and the stress and displacement distribution of the dam and abutments were recorded; the failure mechanisms and processes were explored. The reinforcement effects of the foundation treatment were evaluated by comparing the test results of the models with and without foundation reinforcements. Our analysis indicates that foundation reinforcements can improve the stress distribution, decrease deformation, prevent slides, reduce fault movement, and improve the global stability of high-arch dams.

Geomechanical model test for stability analysis of high arch dam based on small blocks masonry technique

Rock mass deformation and strength property simulation plays a key role in the rupture tests of arch dam geomechanical model. Subject to the limit of geometry scale, usually the simulation of tectonic discontinuities, such as faults, disturbed belts, crush belts and weak interlayer were ignored as safety buffer, which may yield overstated safety factors. In this paper, small block masonry technique and low strength binder invented make the simultaneous simulation of the rock mass and tectonic discontinuities available, which is more coincident with real engineering conditions. Based on the material test of blocks and binder, the small blocks masonry technique has been successfully applied in the rupture test of Xiluodu arch dam. With the assistance of high-accuracy monitoring and measuring system, the stress (strain) and displacement distribution of the dam, abutments and rock foundations are obtained. By analyzing these monitoring results, the failure process, mode and mechanism of the dam body and abutments are derived for further identification of weakness. At last, the comparative analysis with other arch dam geomechanical rupture test results yields the evaluation of the dam's global stability and necessary reinforcement measures.

고대 로마건축의 석축기법에 관한 연구

The purpose of this study is to research the characteristics of masonry techniques on Roman ancient architecture. Opus so means masonry, has many types and techniques and still we use that word. Roman masonry technique appears to be very diverse kinds throughout to try and change the outcome of new technology. Depending on the use of materials the process can distinguished in three courses. First, just use only stones and bricks. Second is the use of concrete that is advanced to cement structure. Third is the use of air-dried bricks and grilled bricks. Roman masonry ranges of techniques not limited to the construction of the resulting but created a variety of architectural language. Architectural space is based on a comprehensive development of masonry techniques.

百間川の築造と河口排水樋門の役割

Construction of the Hyakken River, a diversion channel for the Asahi River, was carried out at the initial stage of the Edo period. Main structures such as weirs and gates were made of stone and skillful masonry technique was used. The construction works were carried under the direction of Eichu Tsuda who was the county reign of the Okayama province and he proposed many new ideas. The flood prevention system by the diversion channel and river mouth gate has fulfilled its function more than three hundred years. The advanced civil engineering technology used in the construction works is introduced in this study. It is necessary that we once reexamine the disaster prevention technology which the predecessor left for us now.

The Evolution of Masonry Technique in Islamic Military Architecture: the Evidence from Shayzar

This article describes and discusses the building sequence identified with the stratigraphic analysis of an architectural complex at the site of Shayzar in Syria. This sequence appears to represent the general sequence of occupation for the castle of Shayzar. It also provides evidence to illustrate the evolution of masonry technique at the site over many centuries; a number of dated inscriptions preserved at the site has contributed absolute dating to a significant part of this sequence. This evidence was recorded in the course of the first season of field work carried out in the spring 2002 for a project of archaeological investigations, the Progetto Shayzar.

The Evolution of Masonry Technique in Islamic Military Architecture: the Evidence from Shayzar

The Evolution of Masonry Technique in Islamic Military Architecture: the Evidence from Shayzar

Mamlük Caravansarais in Galilee

AbstractThe article discusses two medieval khāns or caravansarais, Khān al-Tujjār and Khān Jubb Yūsuf. They illustrate two distinct variants of a familiar medieval building type. Khān al-Tujjār, which is much the larger of the two and whose two phases of construction may be dated tentatively to the early fifteenth and the late sixteenth centuries, is typical in its final form of the huge Ottoman caravansarais (often fortified, or—as here—guarded by adjoining purpose-built forts) built in the Levant from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. They often serviced pilgrim traffic (hence their great size) as well as merchant caravans. Khān Jubb Yūsuf, on the other hand, whose masonry technique suggests that it might date from the fourteenth century, typifies the much more modest khāns, built in chains along the principal trade routes of the area and often erected at the behest of Mamluk officials, which preceded the grander caravansarais of the Ottoman period.