Masonry Buildings Research Articles

Structural characterization of Eastern Canada’s old industrial masonry buildings via typological analysis: part I – construction technologies through time

Industrial unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings are an important part of the existing building stock in Eastern Canada, a region characterised by high-frequency and low-to-moderate magnitude earthquakes. Despite their inherent vulnerability to earthquakes, these non-engineered buildings are being increasingly targeted for reuse purposes in many densely populated cities in the region. A lack of knowledge of local construction techniques, materials and architectural types paired with limited information of their characteristics leads seismic retrofits to be even more disruptive than usual. Often, such seismic retrofits result in expensive and complex designs or avoidable partial demolitions. Typological analysis is utilised in this work to identify local recurrent building archetypes and technologies through archival resources, as well as their evolution through time, as a first step to addressing the lack of information about the structural characteristics of this building type. Results from this study inform subsequent critical and more quantitative investigations conducted in the companion paper, where the first building database focusing on Eastern Canada’s old industrial URM constructions is presented and comprehensively reviewed. This research will enable engineering practitioners and applied researchers to decrease epistemic uncertainties and confidence factors in their structural/seismic assessments, vital to develop rational retrofits.

Structural characterisation of Eastern Canada’s old industrial masonry buildings via typological analysis: part II – building database analysis

The typological analysis conducted in the companion paper is further expanded within this work through the critical analysis of a new extensive building database specifically conceived for old industrial masonry buildings in Eastern Canada. The identification of recurrent unreinforced masonry (URM) building archetypes in this low-to-moderate seismic region is essential to decrease uncertainties currently prevalent in the analysis of local old URM structures, often targeted for adaptive reuse. The database assembled herein comprises various heritage designated buildings across Eastern Canada and was compiled harmonising existing repositories at the federal, provincial and municipal level with an unprecedented focus on structural features. The characteristics of these resources are quantitatively analysed and applied to a case study of the city of Montréal, one of the most important industrial centres in nineteenth and twentieth century Canada. Outcomes from this study will guide practitioners and researchers involved in the structural and seismic assessment and retrofit of old industrial URM constructions, enable more and less invasive rational retrofit designs and inform the new Existing Structures provisions to be included in the 2030 National Building Code of Canada.

Seismic Assessment of an Old Historical Unreinforced Masonry Power House Building

Abstract Design of unreinforced masonry buildings is a major concern in seismically active zones in Nepal. The ChandraJyoti Jalvidhyut Power House, a historical landmark in Nepal, represents the nation’s pioneering effort in hydropower generation and signifies its rich cultural heritage. This study comprehensively assesses the structural assessment and seismic performance deficiencies of the ChandraJyoti Jalvidhyut Power House. Material tests on bricks with the individual properties and behaviour of construction materials were done. Utilizing a finite element model in DIANA software V 10.5, the structure’s response under pushover loading conditions is simulated, providing insights into its structural behaviour. Additionally, fragility curves are developed to correlate earthquake intensity with the probability of damage, offering essential information for preservation strategies and seismic risk mitigation. The compressive strength test of bricks, with a value of 9.6 MPa, falls short of the 10 MPa minimum requirement specified by NBC 203:2015, indicating insufficient load-bearing capacity. The building’s pushover analysis shows that the longitudinal direction experiences higher lateral forces (base shear of 945.87 kN) and greater drift ratios exceeding 0.4%, which increases the likelihood of cracks compared to the transverse direction (base shear of 826.77 kN). The analysis also highlights significant nonlinear behavior in both directions, with maximum roof displacements of 35.18 mm (transverse) and 34.4 mm (longitudinal), reflecting the impact of structural irregularities.

Feasibility of sliding base isolation for rubble stone masonry buildings in the Himalayan Mountain range

This paper studied the feasibility of a sliding base isolation layer to be used in rubble stone masonry buildings in rural areas in the Himalayan Mountain range to provide robust protection to important building like schools against strong earthquakes. In this paper, we carried out on-site investigations, quasi-static tests, and shaking table tests focusing on constructability as well as isolation performance. From the results of the feasibility study, the combination of styrofoam, concrete slab, and grease was found to be the most feasible to be used as the upper element, the lower element, and the lubricant, respectively, in the sliding isolation layer. The key features of the present sliding base isolation layer are: 1) the use of the materials that exist in rural mountain areas or those that can be easily transported from the neighboring towns and cities and 2) ease of construction and minimal change from the current construction practice. From the shaking table tests, we identified the conditions, e.g., grease amount, grease type, normal stress at the interface, and roughness of concrete slab surface, to achieve dynamic friction coefficients ranging from 0.08 to 0.16, suitable for sliding base isolation.

Assessment method for deformation and structural damage of the masonry building caused by shield tunnelling

Assessment method for deformation and structural damage of the masonry building caused by shield tunnelling

The effects of brick wall and RC tie variables on the seismic performance of low-rise confined masonry buildings

An extensive parametric investigation is carried out to determine the effects of different RC tie system and brick wall variables on the performance of confined masonry walls and buildings. The variables considered include: the number of storeys and adjacent walls, the walls aspect ratio, thickness and compressive strength of masonry walls, presence of openings, the RC tie system dimensions, compressive strength and detailing of the longitudinal and transverse reinforcements. The main aim of the investigation is to verify the efficiency of some of the prescriptive code recommendations and to provide a basis for further descriptive guidelines for low-rise confined masonry buildings. Among the major conclusions, it is found that the main affecting parameters are those of the masonry walls themselves. When the walls have sufficient shear capacities, due to lower aspect ratio, higher compressive strength and wall thickness and lack of, or small openings, the flexural demand on the tie system is small and its elements act mainly as axially-loaded tie elements. Therefore, the least affecting parameters are those of the tie system's reinforcement detailing. However, when the masonry walls are weak in shear (low masonry strength and large openings), the demand on the tie system increases, to the point that instead of acting as an integral part of the wall, it acts similar to a weak, moment-resisting frame having infill masonry walls, for which it has not been designed. The scenarios that this will happen include: the wall aspect ratios AR > 2, the masonry compressive strength, f′m < 5.0 MPa and the ratio of length of opening to the length of the wall, Ol/Wl > 0.5. To avoid such behaviour, it is also suggested that the tensile stresses in the longitudinal bars of the RC tie elements be limited to 0.6fy.

Damage to stone masonry buildings in historical centers due to the 2023 earthquake sequence in Turkey

Unreinforced stone masonry buildings represent a significant part of the building stock in the areas affected by the recent devastating earthquakes of 6 February 2023 in Turkey. Most of them were built before 2000, and, hence, they are not compliant with current seismic provisions. Severe damage or collapse was observed in a large number of low-rise stone masonry buildings, including many listed as monuments ones. The structural systems of masonry buildings in the historical center of two cities (namely, Gaziantep and Antakya) are presented herein, along with the typical damage observed. The causes of damage are qualitatively interpreted, wherever relevant evidence is available. To this purpose, the observed damage is compared to that occurred in other parts of the world, in structural systems similar to those of the area affected. Furthermore, the detrimental effect of inadequate pre-earthquake interventions is identified, while a critical discussion regarding frequently applied interventions, and the availability of design rules in current Codes and Guidelines, is initiated to pave the way toward efficient measures to be taken for the protection of surviving stone masonry buildings in Turkey and beyond.

Towards rational decision-making on repointing to mitigate moisture damage in building envelopes: A probabilistic study

Repointing is a prevalent maintenance practice in Northern Europe aimed at mitigating moisture-related damage in brick masonry buildings. Although commonly used, evidence of its effectiveness is limited. This study assesses repointing's role in reducing damage risks by conducting a probabilistic hygrothermal analysis of two wall types: timber frame walls and masonry cavity walls. Results indicate that repointing could reduce the mold index in timber frame walls and moisture content in the autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) layer of masonry cavity walls, particularly in walls with visible defects. However, its impact is minimal on walls without significant deficiencies. Moreover, the study suggests that repointing, given its labor-intensive and costly nature, may not always be the most judicious maintenance strategy. It recommends a selective repointing approach, suiting the specific conditions and needs of the wall based on its location, orientation, and existing state, rather than a blanket application across all façade sections.

Fragility-based seismic assessment of traditional masonry buildings on Azores (Portugal) using simulated ground-motion records

Traditional unreinforced masonry structures are extremely vulnerable to seismic events, featuring large losses in many countries worldwide. This study focuses on the seismic assessment of a traditional masonry structures located in Faial Island—Azores (Portugal), which was hit by an earthquake of M w = 6.2 on 9 July 1998. A set of analyses was conducted through a probabilistic performance-based seismic approach, employing a stochastic finite-fault ground-motion simulation method to derive region-specific records and nonlinear numerical models to compute the capacity of the building. Subsequently, analytical fragility curves were derived considering different seismic scenarios. The results show a significant probability of the structural typology to reach moderate to extensive damage in the case of the specific earthquake, as observed in reality. The study holds significant importance in regions with limited recorded seismic activity, as they offer potential benefits for seismic risk management and mitigation strategies.

Seismic response of random rubble stone masonry buildings from mid-hills of central Nepal

Seismic response of random rubble stone masonry buildings from mid-hills of central Nepal

Analytical vulnerability functions for assessing fatalities in masonry buildings

AbstractThe assessment of human losses and injuries due to earthquakes is critical for the development of risk reduction measures. Yet, most vulnerability studies have focused on the derivation of fragility functions for structural damage, neglecting the evaluation of the human impact. In this study, we implemented a fatality vulnerability assessment procedure based on advanced structural modelling, with an application to typical limestone and granite masonry buildings in Portugal. We performed nonlinear time‐history analysis on 3D numerical models whose characteristics were sampled from statistical models representing the geometric and mechanical properties of this type of construction. Engineering demand parameters, such as volume of loss and volume of survivable space, were estimated and converted into a fatality rate based on observations from past fatal earthquakes. We compared these vulnerability functions with other proposals from the literature in which conventional fragility functions are directly combined with collapse and fatality rates. Finally, the resulting vulnerability functions were tested for two earthquake scenarios for Portugal. The results from this study indicate that the conventional approach for fatality modelling tends to underestimate human losses for strong ground shaking due to the inability to account for catastrophic structural collapses. The fatality vulnerability functions developed in this work can be directly used in probabilistic seismic risk analysis or the assessment of earthquake scenarios.

Seismic Scenario Losses Estimation Based on the Vulnerability of Pre-Code Masonry Buildings in the Metropolitan Area of Lisbon

ABSTRACT The metropolitan area of Lisbon is the region of Portugal with the highest seismic risk, given the coexistence of moderate-to-high hazard with high population density and building stock exposure. The present work addresses the seismic risk assessment of pre-code masonry buildings in this region, accounting various typological classes and conservation states in order to evaluate the consequences in terms of economic losses. The analyses are conducted through a seismic probabilistic approach, considering the site-specific ground motion through a non-stationary stochastic method. The results can serve as a useful guide for decision-making in developing regional seismic risk mitigation strategies.

IM-based seismic reliability assessment of the pre-code masonry building stock in metropolitan area of Lisbon

Earthquakes have a long history of causing catastrophic damage to communities, resulting in structural collapses, loss of life, and economic turmoil. To enable informed decision-making and reduce the impact of these events in earthquake-prone regions, seismic risk studies provide relevant information to support stakeholders in the implementation of effective risk-based policies. The present work addresses the seismic reliability of the pre-code masonry building stock in the Metropolitan Area of Lisbon, which is the region of Portugal that faces the highest seismic risk due to the coexistence of moderate to high seismic hazard and highest demographic-economic exposure. The adopted general framework combines several hazard studies developed for the region under investigation and a synthetic database of masonry buildings representative of the pre-code building stock in Lisbon. Through analytical–numerical probabilistic approaches, new second-order hazard solutions with structural dependency are derived for the mean annual frequency of limit-state exceedance, which can be integrated into national application documents for Eurocode 8. In light of these results, the reliability assessment of the building stock is conducted in several Local Administrative Units by means of an improved SAC/FEMA formulation. The study represents the first comprehensive investigation of its kind in this region, providing essential information to define appropriate target safety level for code calibration and support future risk studies.

On determining structural wall layout during the adaptive reuse process of historic masonry buildings

Defining modifications to a building’s layout during the adaptive reuse of historic masonry buildings can be challenging since the existing structural grid constrains the transformations to be performed. This paper proposes a novel methodology for exploring modifications to a structural wall layout during the adaptive reuse process of historic buildings. The primary objective is to redefine structural wall arrangements to accommodate new openings and/or cuts in existing structural elements, offering designers flexibility in spatial arrangement modifications. Considering that existing buildings are subjected to damage, an evolutionary approach is used to define which wall segments can be removed from the existing layout, according to a multi-objective function that targets minimizing the presence of damaged elements and maximizing the presence of undamaged elements in the design, in addition to minimizing the building’s eccentricity. The problem considers structural constraints based on the compressive capacity and minimum length of shear components. A computational strategy based on Genetic Algorithm is conceptualized as a tool for deriving potential layout solutions that adhere to structural requirements while facilitating the incorporation of new openings. By systematically evolving potential solutions over multiple generations, the algorithm navigates the design space to pinpoint areas within the original shear layout where material can be removed while respecting the given structural constraints. The methodology’s validity is demonstrated through a case study situated in a UNESCO World Heritage Site, providing evidence of the practical application and success of the genetic algorithm approach in real-world scenarios. The findings presented in this paper contribute to the convergence of structural engineering and architectural preservation, offering a systematic and efficient means of determining structural wall layouts for the adaptive reuse of historic masonry buildings. Integrating computational techniques into the adaptive reuse process holds transformative potential, establishing a robust framework for sustainable urban development that honors and enhances the historical fabric of our built environment.

3D printing with stabilized earth: Material development and effect of carbon sequestration on engineering performance

This research examines the feasibility of using excavated soil (clay content of 44 %) as 25 % and 50 % replacement of natural sand in 3D printable formulations. A combination of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and fly ash (FA) are used as binders for stabilization. The development of engineering properties subject to two curing conditions – normal curing and CO2 curing (5 % concentration for 5 h) are investigated. Experimental findings suggest that a combination of FA and clay (mainly kaolinite) in the used soil reduces plastic viscosity and improves flow retention, thus enhancing the extrusion quality and stability. The flocculation of clay at rest accelerates the evolution of static yield stress after extrusion, imparting 18–30 % better thixotropy. As a result, OPC-FA-soil mixes could be stacked to a height of 1.20 m compared to 0.48–0.54 m for OPC-sand and OPC-FA-sand mixes. Carbon sequestration via CO2 curing leads to an increase in wet compressive strength of OPC-25 % soil and OPC-FA-25 % soil by 29–38 % and 26–47 % respectively at 1-day age, which is ascribed to the densification effect of mineral carbonates. This is also reflected in the reduction in water sorptivity through the inter-layer zones and total shrinkage by 20 % and 16 % respectively. Due to reduced shrinkage and capillary sorption, inter-layer bond strengths in CO2-cured OPC-25 % soil are also improved by 20–50 % than the normally cured counterpart. In summary, the research demonstrates a feasible pathway to develop carbon-sequestering earth-based materials (CO2 uptake of 9–11 wt% of OPC) for additive manufacturing of masonry building and infrastructural members.

Experimental and Numerical Study of Newly Assembled Lightweight Radiant Floor Heating System

In this study, the heating capacity of a new prefabricated assembled hot water radiant modular heating system made from a recycled waste building masonry structure is investigated through experimental and numerical simulation methods. The heating capacity of the system in different working conditions (a water supply temperature of 48 °C, 51 °C, 56 °C, and 61 °C; a flow rate of 0.49 m3/h, 0.35 m3/h, and 0.21 m3/h) is analyzed and verified. A three-dimensional steady-state heat transfer numerical model of the floor heat transfer of the module is established, and the accuracy of the model is verified through the measured results to investigate the heating capacity of this system under different water supply temperatures, flow rates and coil spacings. The results show that the new prefabricated hot water radiant module heating system has a 0.9 °C higher air temperature and 2.1 °C higher average floor surface temperature than the traditional wet floor radiant heating system under the same experimental conditions, and the response time is 44% shorter. The water supply temperature can significantly change the heating capacity of the system, while the water supply flow rate has little effect on the system. The established three-dimensional steady-state numerical model can be in good agreement with the measured results. This study can provide an experimental and theoretical basis for the design and application of such systems.

Reverse Engineering Workflows for the Structural Assessment of Historical Buildings

ABSTRACT Supported by advancements in 3D scanning and parametric modeling tools within the architecture, engineering, and construction sectors, reverse engineering processes for cultural heritage (CH) have recently gained popularity. While many studies have focused on simple 3D reconstructions to create virtual environments, a specialized subarea of this research field has targeted more specific digitization objectives, including, among many, structural analysis of building components. This emerging field has not yet been systematically developed due to the intrinsic challenges associated with CH. Within this context, this paper proposes and describes a reverse engineering-based method that utilizes terrestrial laser scanning and visual programming (VP) to analyze displacements and deformations that occurred over time in historical masonry buildings and applied it to the timber trusses, masonry facades, and columns of two selected Italian case study buildings. This method allows for comparing the surveyed condition of these components, considered the “deformed state”, with their ideal configuration, reconstructed using VP algorithms, considered the “original state”. The outcomes of this comparison facilitate the investigation of the components’ structural behavior and support joint considerations to assess the overall condition of the investigated building, providing helpful knowledge for guiding structural improvement interventions.

Investigating the synergistic performance of masonry buildings with steel slabs in structural Design: A case of historical Mahmut Nedim Kurkcuoglu mansion in Turkey

The main aim of this study is to explore the collaborative performance of masonry structures incorporating steel slabs in their structural design. The focal point of the investigation is the historically significant Mahmut Nedim Kurkcuoglu Mansion located in Urfa, Turkey, renowned for its cultural heritage. The research methodology encompasses a comprehensive analysis of the mansion’s structural design, utilizing both numerical modeling and experimental testing. The findings of the study reveal that integrating steel beams into slabs within the structural design of masonry buildings can exert a significant influence on overall structural performance. This integration contributes to the heightened safety and durability of the structure. The results underscore the importance of accounting for the historical and cultural value of heritage buildings when implementing structural modifications. In terms of methodology, the research adds value to the field of structural engineering by offering insights into the incorporation of steel beams in the design of masonry structures. Moreover, it emphasizes the significance of preserving cultural heritage sites through sustainable and innovative engineering solutions. The study not only enriches the understanding of structural engineering but also holds practical implications for professionals such as architects, engineers, and preservationists engaged in the design and maintenance of heritage buildings. In conclusion, this research significantly contributes to the realms of both structural engineering and heritage preservation. Its implications extend to practical applications and can serve as a foundational platform for further exploration and investigation in this interdisciplinary domain.

Smart Clay Bricks enabling Diffuse Strain Monitoring in Masonry Buildings: Progresses at Full-scale

Strain monitoring in masonry buildings can provide useful information regarding the onset of structural damage during operating conditions. This is because when cracks develop on masonry components, i.e., clay bricks and mortar layers, induce discontinuities and redistributions in their original stress/strain configurations. Although the application of local strain measurements for Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) of masonry buildings can be effective in detecting anomalies and modifications in their structural response caused by crack development, achieving diffuse strain monitoring remains a challenge in practical SHM applications, nowadays. This is mainly because strain sensors currently available on the market present several practical limitations, including scalability issues, which often make their large-scale application to masonry buildings difficult. In recent years, for overcoming the drawbacks of traditional sensor systems, innovative smart clay bricks have been developed, able to measure deformation when incorporated into load-bearing masonry structures. In that sense, this paper presents the latest advancements and applications of this brand-new sensing technology for SHM of real-scale masonry buildings.

Structural response of half-scale pumice concrete masonry building: shake table/ambient vibration tests and FE analysis

Seismic performance evaluation of masonry structures is of paramount importance for ensuring the safety and resilience of buildings in earthquake-prone regions. There are limited number of studies on pumice elements in the literature. In addition, there are almost no studies investigating the earthquake behavior of pumice masonry building as a whole structure. In this context, a comprehensive understanding of their seismic response and dynamic characteristics has been lacking. To address this knowledge gap, a shake-table experimental campaign was undertaken, wherein half-scale pumice masonry building was exposed to simulated seismic forces. To enhance the experimental findings, numerical simulations were performed to confirm and expand our comprehension of how the pumice masonry structure responds to dynamic forces. Integrating both experimental and numerical outcomes provides a holistic understanding of how pumice masonry buildings behave during seismic events. At the end of the experimental study, the frequency values of the pumice model were observed to decrease up to 23.5% in the modes compared to the undamaged state. In the numerical model, this value decreases up to 19.85%. For the undamaged and damaged model, the first three experimental mode shapes were similar to the numerical mode shapes. Both experimental and numerical results show that the expected damages occur in the same regions. These results show that nonlinear FE models can be helpful in determining potential damage model locations. The findings have implications for the seismic design and retrofitting of similar traditional masonry buildings, facilitating the development of resilient and sustainable engineering solutions in seismic-prone regions.