Masking Conditions Research Articles

Medically related speech: Impacts of age, familiarity, and noise on word recognition

Verbal communication between patients and healthcare providers is an important piece of successful healthcare delivery. Less familiar medical terminology coupled with noisy hospital environments can lead to speech intelligibility challenges between healthcare providers and patients. Prior results showed lower word recognition accuracy for lower familiarity and frequency words and in the presence of noise in younger adults (Bent et al., 2022). The current study expands on the previous work with the inclusion of older adults and an additional noise masking condition. Online listening tests were conducted to study the impacts of word familiarity and background noise on speech perception in younger (age 18–35) and older adults (age 60–85). Participants were presented with a corpus of 160 medically related sentences with varying word familiarity and frequency characteristics, and word recognition accuracy was recorded. Sentences were presented in quiet, hospital noise, speech-shaped noise, and speech-shaped noise modulated by the hospital noise envelope, a novel condition from previous work. Results highlight a comparison of speech recognition performance between the two age groups. Effects of sentence familiarity/frequency rating and type of noise masker on speech intelligibility are discussed. [Work supported by the James S. McDonnell Foundation https://doi.org/10.37717/2021-3028.]

Perception error variation in masking contexts

Masking noise is an important tool in speech and hearing experiments. It provides a means to simulate real world conditions and provide misperceptions that are as naturally elicited as possible. However, the exact characteristics of the variable approach to this parameter is poorly understood. The present investigation explores the types and variability of errors across different noise conditions. The English Consistent Confusion Corpus [Marxer et al., JASA 140, EL458–EL463 (2016)], which provides data on consistently reproducible mispercepts, was used for this investigation. The dataset contains tokens of words in multiple masking conditions: speech shaped noise; three talker babble modulated noise; and four-talker natural babble, correlated with signal to noise ratios that bias a listener towards a specific mispercept. This dataset contains 3200 individual word tokens from four different speakers with 15 listeners. The interaction between types and variability of misperception with the different types of masking noise is explored. As well, the suitability of the different noise conditions for speech perception experiments is discussed.

Impact of Face Masks on Speech in Parkinson's Disease: Effect of Clear and Loud Speech Styles.

The purpose of this study is to quantify the combined effects of face masks and effortful speech styles on speech intensity, spectral moments, and measures of spectral balance in talkers with Parkinson's disease. Fifteen people with Parkinson's disease and 15 healthy, older controls read aloud sentences in three face mask conditions and three speech style conditions. Mask conditions included no mask, surgical masks, and KN95 masks. Speech styles included habitual, clear, and loud. Acoustic measures of intensity, spectral moments, and spectral balance were modeled as a function of speaker group, mask, and speech style. Overall, talkers with PD demonstrated lower concentrations of high-frequency spectral energy in their speech. Face masks attenuated high-frequency energy, whereas clear followed by loud speaking styles amplified high frequencies. Overall, the attenuation observed by face masks was preserved across speech styles, and both mask and speech patterns were observed to be similar across groups. Clear and loud speech styles were effective in compensating for the damping effects of masks in talkers with and without PD. However, given that people with PD demonstrated poorer overall spectral balance compared to controls, the gains afforded by speaking clearly or loudly may be limited when wearing a face mask.

With or without the Mask: Age Differences in Perceived Trustworthiness and Health during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the obligation to wear surgical face masks have affected social interactions. Wearing a mask can cause impairments in face identification, emotion recognition, and trait impressions. The present study investigated, during the COVID-19 period, age-related differences in perceived trustworthiness (Study 1) and health (Study 2) when viewing faces with or without masks. Younger (YAs, 18-35 years) and older (OAs, over 65 years) adults' ratings were compared. Through a web-based platform, a series of neutral younger and older faces (YFs vs. OFs) were presented, on a computer screen, with or without a mask (Mask vs. No-Mask), and participants were asked to rate them on a 7-point scale. Furthermore, data collected during the pandemic (Mask and No-Mask conditions) were compared with ratings obtained before it (Pre-COVID condition). Perceived trustworthiness was lower in the No-Mask condition for both age groups compared to Mask and Pre-COVID conditions, which did not differ. For health ratings, no differences emerged for OAs between the conditions, whereas YAs' ratings were lower in both the Mask and No-Mask conditions compared to the Pre-COVID condition. The fear of contracting COVID-19 affected both trustworthiness and health ratings. Wearing a surgical face mask affects trait impressions for YAs and OAs, partly due to the fear of COVID-19. Trait impressions are also influenced by the age of the face to be evaluated.

Can masked gaze and arrow stimuli elicit overt orienting of attention? A registered report

Viewing an averted gaze can elicit saccades towards the corresponding location. Here, the automaticity of this gaze-following behaviour phenomenon was further tested by exploring whether such an effect can be detected in response to briefly-presented masked averted gazes. Participants completed an oculomotor interference task consisting of making leftward/rightward saccades according to a symbolic instruction cue. Crucially, either a task-irrelevant averted-gaze face or an arrow (i.e., a non-social control stimulus) was also presented in different blocks of trials. Faces and arrows were presented for either 1000 ms, or 8 ms and then backward-masked, to reduce the likelihood of conscious processing. Worse oculomotor performance emerged when the saccade direction did not match (vs match) that suggested by the task-irrelevant gaze/arrow stimuli in the unmasked condition. However, in the masked condition, no oculomotor interference occurred for any task-irrelevant stimulus. Results enrich knowledge about boundary conditions for gaze/arrow-driven orienting using ecological attention measures.

Speaking with mask in the COVID-19 era: Multiclass machine learning classification of acoustic and perceptual parameters.

The intensive use of personal protective equipment often requires increasing voice intensity, with possible development of voice disorders. This paper exploits machine learning approaches to investigate the impact of different types of masks on sustained vowels /a/, /i/, and /u/ and the sequence /a'jw/ inside a standardized sentence. Both objective acoustical parameters and subjective ratings were used for statistical analysis, multiple comparisons, and in multivariate machine learning classification experiments. Significant differences were found between mask+shield configuration and no-mask and between mask and mask+shield conditions. Power spectral density decreases with statistical significance above 1.5 kHz when wearing masks. Subjective ratings confirmed increasing discomfort from no-mask condition to protective masks and shield. Machine learning techniques proved that masks alter voice production: in a multiclass experiment, random forest (RF) models were able to distinguish amongst seven masks conditions with up to 94% validation accuracy, separating masked from unmasked conditions with up to 100% validation accuracy and detecting the shield presence with up to 86% validation accuracy. Moreover, an RF classifier allowed distinguishing male from female subject in masked conditions with 100% validation accuracy. Combining acoustic and perceptual analysis represents a robust approach to characterize masks configurations and quantify the corresponding level of discomfort.

Localization of Correlated and Uncorrelated Audio Signals in the Horizontal Plane under Masking Conditions

Localization of Correlated and Uncorrelated Audio Signals in the Horizontal Plane under Masking Conditions

Efficacy and Safety of 4.7 mg Deslorelin Acetate Implants as a Neutering Option in Male Cats: A Large-Scale Multicentre Randomised Controlled Study.

This multicenter-controlled, double-masked randomized European study was conduc-ted to confirm both the efficacy and safety of a deslorelin implant in controlling fertility and sexual behavior in a large population of tom cats over a 12-month period. Among the 225 screened individuals, a total of 205 privately owned indoor intact male cats, aged 3 months of age or older, were randomly allocated to a deslorelin implant (n = 154) or to a negative control group (n = 51). After the screening visit performed between day (D)-14 and D-7, six additional visits were sche-duled on D0, D45, D93, D186, D279 and D372. Effects on testosterone, sexual behaviors, penile spines, testicular volume and intact male cat urine odor were assessed at every visit under masked conditions as regards to the treatment group. In addition, phone calls from the investigators to the owners were scheduled on D7 and then on a monthly basis whenever no visit was scheduled. Success was defined as an individual serum testosterone concentration below or equal to 0.10 ng/mL and was 77.9% at D45, 83.1% at D93, 84.4% at D186 and D279, and 61.7% at D372 in the deslorelin group, and 3.9% at D45, 5.9% at D93, 3.9% at D186, 7.8% at D279 and 3.9% at D372 in the negative control group. Testing for superiority was made stepwise from D45 to D372 upwards; the difference in success rates was significant from D45 to D372 (p < 0.001 for each time point). The mean testosterone concentration dropped from baseline in the deslorelin group, remaining below the set threshold of 0.1 ng/mL until D372. From D7 onwards, the mean sum score for sexual behaviors (including vocalization, urine marking, aggression and intact male cat urine odor) was significantly lower at each observation time point in the deslorelin group compared to the control group, where no decrease in scores was observed. The mean percent change to baseline of the testicular volume and the percentage of cats with a decreased visibility and adult appearance of penile spines were significantly lower in the deslorelin group as soon as D45. No relevant safety concerns were reported during the course of the study. The deslorelin implant Suprelorin® 4.7 mg (Virbac, Carros, France) is a safe and effective neutering option, inducing infertility over a 12-month period when administered to intact male cats aged between 3 months of age and 11 years of age. The implants also successfully reduced sexual behaviors (i.e., vocalization, urine marking, aggression), intact male cat urine odor, testicular volume and penile spine score for 1 year (372 ± 5 days).

Localization of Correlated and Uncorrelated Audio Signals in the Horizontal Plane under Masking Conditions

The effect of the masker on the localization of the signal was investigated in the free field conditions. Bandpass noise bursts (5–18 kHz) were used to create a signal and a masker. In the case of correlated stimuli, the same noise burst served both as a masker and a signal. In the case of uncorrelated stimuli, the signal and the masker were created from two different noise bursts. The masker was always on the right at an angle of 15 degrees. The signal was presented in one of three positions on the left: –18, –52, –86 degrees. The signal and the masker of 1 s duration each were presented either simultaneously or with a shift of the signal onset relative to the masker onset. The delay varied from 1 to 1200 ms. Perceived position of signals under masking conditions were compared with a single presentation of the signal. It is shown that under the masking conditions the perceived position of the signal shifted towards the masker, and the perceived position of the masker shifted towards the signal. The shift value decreased with increasing delay between the signal and the masker and with increasing angular distance between them. The mutual influence of the signal and the masker was more pronounced for correlated stimuli than for uncorrelated ones.

Specificity of visual event-related potentials to subthreshold presentation of erotic pictures in pedophilia

To study visual event-related potentials (ERPs) associated with presentation of erotic pictures in backward masking condition in order to investigate perception, attention and information processing underlying the initiation and maintenance of abnormal sexual behavior in pedophilia. Participants (58 males committed sexual offenses against children) were divided into the pedophilia group (n=38) and the control group without disorders of sexual preference (n=20). Three types of stimuli were used: neutral pictures of nature (S1), adult heterosexual erotic pictures (S2) and erotic pictures with children (S3). Posterior N1 (N140) and anterior N1 (N120) and P3 (P320) ERP components were included in analysis. In both groups, the perception of erotic stimuli was accompanied by a significant increase in the amplitude and prolongation of the latency of the N140 and P320 components (p<0.001). N140 changes were characterized by right-hemispheric bias in both groups, however, asymmetry was observed for amplitude in the control group, and for latency - in the pedophilia group; besides, reactivity to S3 stimuli was weaker than to S2 ones in the pedophilia group. N120 amplitude was elevated significantly in response to S2 stimuli in the control group, and no changes were found in the pedophilia group. Between-group differences were revealed for early negative components N140 and N120, which parameters were entered as predictors into classification model based on discriminant analysis. The obtained accuracy of model was 87.23%. The specificity of neurophysiological reactions to erotic pictures in pedophilic patients corroborates the concept of disease as general neurodevelopmental disorder.

Reduced thalamic activity in ADHD under ABR forward masking conditions

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common chronic neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by symptoms of inattention, overactivity, and/or impulsiveness. The prevalence of ADHD varies in different settings and there have been voices raised to call for more objective measures in order to avoid over- and underdiagnosing of ADHD. Auditory Brainstem Response (ABR) is a method where click shaped sounds evoke potentials that are recorder from electrodes on the skull of a patient. The aim of this study was to explore possible alterations in the ABR of 29 patients with ADHD compared to 39 healthy controls. We used a forward masked sound. We found differences in ABR that correspond to the thalamic area. The thalamus seems to play an active role in regulation of activity level in ADHD. More research is needed to draw any further conclusions on using ABR as an objective measurement to detect ADHD.

Event-Related Potentials in Conditions of Auditory Spatial Masking in Humans

Event-Related Potentials in Conditions of Auditory Spatial Masking in Humans

The masking condition for the quantum state in two-dimensional Hilbert space

This paper focuses on quantum information masking for the quantum state in two-dimensional Hilbert space. We present a system of equations as the condition of quantum information masking. It is shown that quantum information contained in a single qubit state can be masked, if and only if the coefficients of the quantum state satisfy the given system of equations. By observing the characteristics of non-orthogonal maskable quantum states, we obtain a related conclusion, namely, if two non-orthogonal two-qubit quantum states can mask a single qubit state, they have the same number of terms and the same basis. Finally, for maskable orthogonal quantum states, we analyze two special examples and give their images for an intuitive description.

The influence of wearing a mask on the projected first impressions and attractiveness levels of smiling individuals.

To evaluate the effect of mask wearing on facial attractiveness and projected first impressions during the COVID-19 pandemic. A total of eight models were evaluated by 200 live raters and 750 online raters both with and without masks while smiling maximally. Both live and online raters looked at the models for 15 s, then completed a first impressions questionnaire. Overall ratings for attractiveness were higher for both masked and unmasked conditions in-person versus online. Males were perceived more favorably both in impressions and attractiveness online when masked, whereas in person they were more favorable when unmasked. Females were perceived more favorably in impressions when unmasked both online and in person, but their attractiveness rating was higher when masked both online and in person. Regardless of gender and masking state, all first impressions were more favorable in person versus online. The differences were statistically significant (all p< 0.05). Face masks have different effects for males versus females in both an online and in-person setting. Men are perceived more positively in-person when they smile unmasked while they are better ranked online when they smile masked. Females are better perceived in all domains other than attractiveness when smiling unmasked both online and in person. To optimize first impressions, individuals should seek to meet in person whenever possible when forming new relationships.

Comparing the Influences of Masking, Crowding, Response Conflict, and Cortical Scaling on Simple Shape Identification with Foveal Targets

Two experiments were conducted to compare the effects of masking and crowding on simple shape perception. The target stimuli were presented in foveal vision, where masking effects are generally investigated and where crowding effects are typically small compared to peripheral vision. The second experiment investigated the potential involvement of the dorsal visual pathway by testing if a peripheral crowding stimulus could interfere with the perception of a target shape, if it were scaled to account for low visual acuity? The results of both experiments indicated strong congruency effects, especially for pattern and metacontrast masking (which, in some respects, is similar to crowding). Congruency effects were generally weak for distractors presented further from the target. In Experiment 2, cortically scaled distractors only showed a potential influence in the forward masking condition. Perhaps this is an indication of a priming effect from the distant crowding stimuli. Further research might reveal the extent to which crowding displays can test physiologically motivated hypotheses.

The Quantum Information Masking Condition for Pure and Mixed States

The Quantum Information Masking Condition for Pure and Mixed States

Subjective tinnitus patients with normal pure-tone hearing still suffer more informational masking in the noisy environment.

Subjective tinnitus patients experience more hearing difficulties than normal peers in complex hearing environments, even though most of these patients have normal pure-tone hearing thresholds. Using speech recognition tasks under different masking conditions can provide insight into whether the effects of tinnitus are lateralized and the mechanisms behind the effects. By simulating sound field recordings, we obtain a target speech sentence that can be perceived as presented on one side and noise or speech masking with or without spatial separation from it. Our study used the virtual sound field technique to investigate the difference in speech recognition ability between chronic subjective tinnitus patients and a normal-hearing control group under the four masking conditions (speech-spectrum noise masking or two-talker speech masking, with or without perceived spatial separation). Experiment 1 showed no differences for target speech perceived location (left or right), which rules out a lateralization of the effect of tinnitus patients. Experiment 2 further found that although tinnitus patients had weaker performance than normal people in very complex auditory scenarios, when the spatial cue of the target speech exists, they can make good use of this cue to make up for the original processing disadvantage and achieve a similar performance as the normal-hearing group. In addition, the current study distinguished the effects of informational masking and energetic masking on speech recognition in patients with tinnitus and normal hearing. The results suggest that the impact of tinnitus on speech recognition in patients is more likely to occur in the auditory center rather than the periphery.

Wearing the face mask affects our social attention over space.

Recent studies suggest that covering the face inhibits the recognition of identity and emotional expressions. However, it might also make the eyes more salient, since they are a reliable index to orient our social and spatial attention. This study investigates (1) whether the pervasive interaction with people with face masks fostered by the COVID-19 pandemic modulates the processing of spatial information essential to shift attention according to other’s eye-gaze direction (i.e., gaze-cueing effect: GCE), and (2) whether this potential modulation interacts with motor responses (i.e., Simon effect). Participants were presented with face cues orienting their gaze to a congruent or incongruent target letter location (gaze-cueing paradigm) while wearing a surgical mask (Mask), a patch (Control), or nothing (No-Mask). The task required to discriminate the identity of the lateralized target letters by pressing one of two lateralized response keys, in a corresponding or a non-corresponding position with respect to the target. Results showed that GCE was not modulated by the presence of the Mask, but it occurred in the No-Mask condition, confirming previous studies. Crucially, the GCE interacted with Simon effect in the Mask and Control conditions, though in different ways. While in the Mask condition the GCE emerged only when target and response positions corresponded (i.e., Simon-corresponding trials), in the Control condition it emerged only when they did not correspond (i.e., Simon-non-corresponding trials). These results indicate that people with face masks induce us to jointly orient our visual attention in the direction of the seen gaze (GCE) in those conditions resembling (or associated with) a general approaching behavior (Simon-corresponding trials). This is likely promoted by the fact that we tend to perceive wearing the mask as a personal safety measure and, thus, someone wearing the face mask is perceived as a trustworthy person. In contrast, people with a patch on their face can be perceived as more threatening, therefore inducing a GCE in those conditions associated with a general avoidance behavior (Simon-non-corresponding trials).

Perceptual learning alters effects of foreign language backgrounds in speech-in-speech recognition.

The effect of training on linguistic release from masking (LRM) was examined. In a pre-test and post-test, English monolingual listeners transcribed sentences presented with English and Dutch maskers. During training, participants transcribed sentences with either Dutch, English, or white noise maskers and received feedback. LRM was evident in the pre-test (performance was better with Dutch maskers) but was eliminated after training (masker conditions did not differ). Thus, the informational masking driving LRM can be ameliorated through training. This study is a basis for future research examining the specific aspects of informational masking that change as a function of experience.

One-Shot Face Recognition through a Region Inception ResNet with Modified Triplet Loss

Face recognition has become a convenient method for identity verification, especially the one-shot task has much practical value. Some former works have achieved considerable results. However, they perform ill under the situation of COVID-19 with more and more people wearing a mask. This requires the extracted face features distinguishable and robust enough for classifying different masked people. It is difficult for the one-shot task with only one sample for training. To solve this problem, we designed a network called Region Inception ResNet with Modified Triplet Loss, which generates robust features. It keeps high accuracy even under masked condition. The networks are trained on the datasets of CASIA-Webface and Ms-Celeb-1M, tested on LFW (Labelled Faces in the Wild). Experiments in Section 6 show the effectiveness of our method.