Masculine Norms Research Articles

Masculinity, Meat, and Veg*nism: A Scoping Review.

Men historically consume more meat than women, show fewer intentions to reduce meat consumption, and are underrepresented among vegans and vegetarians. Eating meat strongly aligns with normative masculinities, decisively affirming that "real men" eat meat and subordinating men who choose to be veg*n (vegan or vegetarian). The emergence of meat alternatives and increasing environmental concerns may contest these long-standing masculine norms and hierarchies. The current scoping review addresses the research question what are the connections between masculinities and men's attitudes and behaviors toward meat consumption and veg*nism? Using keywords derived from two key concepts, "men" and "meat," 39 articles were selected and analyzed to inductively derive three thematic findings; (a) Meat as Masculine, (b) Veg*n Men as Othered, and (c) Veg*nism as Contemporary Masculinity. Meat as Masculine included how men's gendered identities, defenses, and physicalities were entwined with meat consumption. Veg*n Men as Othered explored the social and cultural challenges faced by men who adopt meatless diets, including perceptions of emasculation. Veg*nism as Contemporary Masculinity was claimed by men who eschewed meat in their diets and advocated for veg*nism as legitimate masculine capital through linkages to physical strength, rationality, self-determination, courage, and discipline. In light of the growing concern about the ecological impact of meat production and the adverse health outcomes associated with its excessive consumption, this review summarizes empirical connections between masculinities and the consumption of meat to consider directions for future men's health promotion research, policy, and practice.

Masculine enjoyment problematizing subjectification through norm critique as a response to climate change

This article problematizes subjectification through the practice of norm critique. The study builds on interviews with some of the key initiators and participants in a project working norm critically with men and masculinity in relation to gender equality and climate change in Sweden. Through the psychoanalytical framework of enjoyment and fantasy, I develop a perspective on how and why a certain understanding of the norm-critical subject emerges. The analysis makes visible how the practice of norm critique, while challenging hegemonic masculine norms such as emotional stoicism, reinforces neoliberal ideals of individualized self-emancipation and the quest for authenticity and wholeness, which risks de-politicizing the issue of climate change.

Self-perceptions of masculinities and testicular cancer: Qualitative explorations.

Masculinities have been explored in men with testicular cancer (TC), though limited contemporary research is available on traditional masculine norms important to masculine self-perception. The purpose of this research was to explore the discourse of TC experience in relation to masculine self-perception. A qualitative descriptive study was conducted consisting of semi-structured interviews with 21 men. Men were aged between 31 and 47 (Mage=35.7). Most men were diagnosed with Stage 1 cancer (66.6%), all men had finished active treatment and time since diagnosis ranged from 17.3 to 71.8months (M=47.2). Independent coding was conducted by two researchers and was refined in coding meetings with authors. Themes were developed in a predominantly deductive manner, and analysis of themes was undertaken using a reflexive analysis approach. Traditional masculine norms showed differing relationships to masculine self-perception. Two main themes were identified [1] Maintained or enhanced masculine self-perception and [2] threats to masculine self-perception. Subthemes demonstrated that maintaining emotional control, strength and 'winning' was important to men, and reduced physical competencies (i.e., strength, sexual dysfunction, virility) challenged self-perception. Strict adherence to traditional norms in response to threatened self-perception related to psychological distress. Leveraging traditionally masculine norms such as physical strength and control and developing flexible adaptations of masculinities should be encouraged with men with TC to retain self-perception and potentially enable better coping. Masculine self-perception of gay/bisexual men may centre around sexual functioning, though further research is required.

Factors Influencing the Relationship Between Gender and Depression

Depression is one of the most common mental health disorders that affect both mental and physical well-being. Like other mental health conditions, various factors influence the prevalence of depression. One such factor is gender. Based on a review of academic articles discussing gender roles in mental health disorders like depression, this research paper addresses the various factors contributing to depression in men and women concerning the influence of gender roles. When it comes to depression, women tend to suffer higher depressive symptoms than men because of temperament, cognitive vulnerability, puberty, national wealth, gender equity, education, masculinity norms, and socioeconomic factors. However, men and women tend to be affected by different specific factors. Men are more susceptible to job-related activities while women tend to be affected by societal pressure. Some suggestions to address depression among men and women include implementing youth groups in schools specifically to address gender issues, promoting healthier masculine roles that include emotional sharing, coping strategies, and cooperation, and encouraging a more balanced work life.

Value-related attitudes towards mental health problems and help-seeking barriers: a sequential mixed-methods design investigating participants with reported depressive episodes in rural Northern Germany with and without treatment experience

BackgroundSeeking help for severe depressive symptoms remains a major obstacle for particular groups within the general population. Value-related attitudes might contribute to this treatment gap, particularly in rural regions with a low density of psychiatric-psychotherapeutic services. We aimed to investigate narratives of socialization, value systems, and barriers of help-seeking to better understand social milieus at increased risk for underuse of psychiatric-psychotherapeutic services in a rural area in East Germany. This could complement the explanatory power of classical socio-demographic determinants and provide guidance for possible interventions.MethodBased on results of an analysis of a population-based German cohort study (SHIP-TREND-1), 20 individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants who met criteria for having been moderately or severely depressed at least once in their life. Qualitative analyses of interview data were guided by grounded theory methodology.ResultsParticipants with severe symptoms of depression were more frequent among non-responders of this study. We identified key aspects that influence help-seeking for mental health problems and seem to be characteristic for rural regions: family doctors serve as initial contact points for mental health problems and are considered as alternatives for mental health professionals; norms of traditional masculinity such as being more rational than emotional, needing to endure hardships, embodying strength, and being independent were frequently mentioned as inhibiting help-seeking by middle-aged men; anticipated adverse side-effects of therapy such as worsening of symptoms; a frequently expressed desire for less pathologically perceived treatment options.ConclusionsOur results suggest that barriers regarding help-seeking in rural regions are multifaceted and seem to be influenced by traditional norms of masculinity. We believe it is critical to strengthen existing and already utilized services such as family doctors and to implement and evaluate tailored interventions targeting the needs of the rural milieu.

Barriers and Strategies to Improve Men’s Uptake of HIV Care Services in Rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: A Qualitative Approach

The 2017 Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS Blind Spot report echoes the challenges as well as the benefits of men’s effective utilisation of HIV services. However, men have been consistently missing from the HIV care cascade, leading to poor health outcomes in men and ongoing transmission of HIV in young women in South Africa. This study sought to understand key barriers to effective uptake of HIV services among men and potential strategies to address these challenges. Ten semi-structured telephone interviews and three workshops were conducted (from July to November 2020) with a purposive sample of men aged 21–65 years (N = 26) from rural KwaZulu-Natal. Broad themes were identified from the interview transcripts and analysed inductively. Masculine norms, stigma, and fear of an HIV identity were major barriers to the uptake of HIV testing among men as well as hesitancy due to perceived risks. Participants living with HIV identified various sociopsychological, structural, and COVID-related factors inhibiting the uptake of and adherence to HIV treatment. Besides condoms and circumcision, no participants had prior knowledge of pre-exposure prophylaxis. Participants suggested that men need tailored HIV/AIDS messaging and education (led by men living with HIV) about the benefits of HIV testing, treatment, and prevention. Importantly, they believed that community delivery of HIV services would encourage more men to engage in care. To achieve zero new infections and zero AIDS-related deaths of men in South Africa, efforts should be directed to developing tailored emotive educational and community-based interventions that address identified barriers to improve men’s utilisation of HIV care services.

Inpatient staff experiences of providing treatment for males with a diagnosis of borderline personality disorder: A thematic analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Research highlights discrepancies in recognition of borderline personality disorder (BPD) in men, despite similar rates of prevalence across genders. To investigate inpatient mental health professionals' experiences of delivering treatment for males with a diagnosis of BPD. Six mental health professionals working within adult acute inpatient wards completed a semi-structured interview. All participants were members of the nursing team. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the data. Five themes were identified: Gender Differences, Stereotyping, Facilitators to Care Delivery, Barriers to Care Delivery and Ways to Improve Care. Participants talked of a lack of awareness and understanding of BPD in males impacting both diagnosis and treatment in an acute inpatient setting. There may be factors ranging from gender stereotypes, limited knowledge and understanding of gender differences in presentations, and personal/organisational cultures influencing the formulation and treatment of males with a diagnosis of BPD in inpatient settings. The findings suggest that gender stereotypes such as masculine norms may influence how male patients' emotional difficulties are understood and managed, and that additional training in male-specific issues to improve knowledge and care provision. This research will support inpatient staff, service leads and clinical educators to identify ways to adapt care provision for men.

Social rank and compassion: How insecure striving, social safeness and fears of compassion mediate the relationship between masculinity, depression and anxiety.

Traditional masculinity norms displayed by men attempt to signal a dominance or 'toughness' to others; however, traditional masculine norms are associated with a range of mental health difficulties, including depression and anxiety. Based on social rank theory, we tested the mediating role of insecure striving, social safeness and fears of compassion on the relationship between masculinity, anxiety and depression. We also examined whether compassionate goals were negatively correlated with masculine norm adherence. We used a cross-sectional survey design recruiting 844 men, aged 18-60 years (M = 34.0, SD = 14.4). Our results replicated previous findings with masculine norms significantly associated with depression and anxiety. Extending on previous work, we found insecure striving, social safeness and fears of compassion fully mediated these relationships for anxiety and partially for depression. This relationship was strongest for the masculinity subtypes of self-reliance and emotional control. Compassionate goals were negatively associated with masculine norm adherence. Social rank theory offers a helpful explanatory framework to understand the links between traditional masculinity and mental health, highlighting the importance of social safeness and insecure striving for men.

Paternal Postpartum Depression and Associated Factors Among Partners of Women Who Gave Birth in Seka Town, Southwest Ethiopia.

Despite epidemiologic studies demonstrating the increased incidence of paternal postpartum depression, their emotional health is overlooked throughout their partner's pregnancy and postpartum period as postpartum depression has been traditionally construed as a disease of women. Traditional masculinity norms also result in a lack of recognition and barriers to the treatment of depression in men. This study is aimed to determine the prevalence and factors of paternal postpartum depression among fathers whose wives gave birth. A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted from July 7 to 17, 2023. The 288 sample size was estimated using a single population proportion formula and selected by random sampling technique. The data were exported from Kobo Toolbox and analyzed using SPSS version 26. Candidate variables were identified in bivariate at p < .25 for the multivariate analysis. A p < .05 and adjusted odds ratio (AOR) were used to determine the significance. A total of 280 partners participated making a 97.22% response rate. Paternal postpartum depression was 19.6%(95% confidence interval [CI] = [15.4%, 24.3%]). It was significantly associated with history of depression (AOR = 4.4, 95% CI = [1.7, 10.9]), unplanned pregnancy (AOR = 4.7, 95% CI = [1.9, 11.3]), alcohol consumption (AOR: 3.0, 95% CI = [1.3, 7.4]), infant sleeping problem (AOR: 3.0, 95% CI = [1.1, 8.9]), and mode of delivery (AOR: 3.0, 95% CI = [1.3, 7.6]). This study concluded that paternal postpartum depression was high. The researchers recommended the inclusion of men's mental health services like screening into women's postnatal health care.

Psychosocial Impact of Infertility Diagnosis and Conformity to Gender Norms on the Quality of Life of Infertile Spanish Couples.

Epidemiological data show that human reproductive disorders are a common problem worldwide, affecting almost one in six people of reproductive age. As a result, infertility has been identified by the World Health Organization as a public health disease. Reproductive problems can take a heavy toll on the psychosocial well-being of couples suffering from infertility. This is especially true for women, who tend to be the ones who undergo the most treatment. The main objective of the present study is to find out whether a sex-based infertility diagnosis influences the quality of life of couples with infertility. Also, we aim to find out whether the degree of adherence to gender norms influences their quality of life. A cross-sectional study was conducted using the Fertility Quality of Life Questionnaire (FertiQoL) and the Conformity to Feminine and Masculine Norms Inventories in a sample of 219 infertile Spanish couples (438 participants). The results show that, in all cases, regardless of the degree of conformity to gender norms and whether the infertility diagnosis was of female or male origin, women have lower scores on the self-perceived quality of life. This suggests that being female is already a psychosocial risk factor when assessing the psychosocial consequences of infertility.

Men’s transformative health service use: rethinking customer experience of vulnerability

PurposePreventative health services are keen to identify how to engage men and increase their participation, thus improving health, well-being and life expectancy over time. Prior research has shown general gender norms are a key reason for men’s avoidance of these services, yet there is little investigation of specific gender norms. Furthermore, masculinity has not been examined as a factor associated with customer vulnerability. This paper aims to identify the relationship between gender norm segments for men, likely customer vulnerability over time and subjective health and well-being.Design/methodology/approachAdult males (n = 13,891) from an Australian longitudinal men’s health study were classified using latent class analysis. Conditional growth mixture modelling was conducted at three timepoints.FindingsThree masculinity segments were identified based on masculine norm conformity: traditional self-reliant, traditional bravado and modern status. All segments had likely customer experience of vulnerability. Over time, the likely experience was temporary for the modern status segment but prolonged for the traditional self-reliant and traditional bravado segments. The traditional self-reliant segment had low subjective health and low overall well-being over time.Practical implicationsPractitioners can tailor services to gender norm segments, enabling self-reliant men to provide expertise and use the “Status” norm to reach all masculinity segments.Originality/valueThe study of customer vulnerability in a group usually considered privileged identifies differential temporal experiences based on gender norms. The study confirms customer vulnerability is temporal in nature; customer vulnerability changes over time from likely to actual for self-reliant men.

Migrate to (not) be ‘gurus’: Unpacking workplace masculinity in China's tech sector

AbstractThrough an intersectional analysis of gender, class, and migration, this article reveals how a hegemonic culture of workplace masculinity, embodied by a group of ‘gurus,’ is constructed in China's tech companies. The guru masculinity is characterized by proactivity and aggressiveness at work, ‘putting work first’ and overwork, and the ability to navigate boundaryless careers and settle down in first‐tier cities. It translates hegemonic masculine norms of material success, enjoying urban life, and men's breadwinner position in contemporary China on the one hand, and responds to a labor regime of precarious employment relations and prevalent overwork norm on the other hand. The article contributes to the literature on hegemonic masculinity in work organizations by showcasing how a hegemonic masculinity in China's tech workplace is constructed at the conjuncture of hegemonic gender norms at a societal level and the distinct labor regime in the tech sector. It also reveals that many male workers fail to conform to this cultural ideal, experiencing masculine frustration rooted in the nature of the ‘workplace masculinity contest,’ uneven urban development, and the demanding labor regime. It thus opens further discussions on how men resist hegemonic gender norms and construct alternative masculinities.

Роль норм маскулинности в формировании школьного буллинга

&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;The article presents an analytical review of domestic and foreign publications highlighting the problem of school bullying in the context of adolescents&amp;rsquo; adherence to the norms of traditional masculinity. It is necessary to consider school bullying through the prism of how gender stereotypes become dangerous for those boys who do not feel a sense of belonging to this large social group due to the fact that they do not fully comply with normative male behavior. Such children will be subject to ridicule and attempts to adjust their behavior to the appropriate norm both from the peers and, probably, from the teachers. Recent studies in several countries show that school bullying affects up to 35% of children. Most often, boys are involved in bullying and practices of physical abuse. Traditional norms of masculinity prescribe them and encourage aggressive, active behavior, competition and the avoidance of weakness and passivity. These standards prohibit boys from being tender, crying, and provoking aggression in response to an attack. Those boys who cannot fight back are bullied by other boys.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

The ‘Mascara Boys’: Performance, Subversion, and the New Pakistani Masculinity

This study offers an exploration into the performative expressions of gender and masculinity by the "Mascara Boys" in Pakistan. Situating the research within the frameworks of performativity theory and hybrid masculinities, the study investigates how these individuals subvert and challenge established masculinity norms through the strategic use of Instagram as a transgressive digital space. The findings reveal a multifaceted landscape where digital platforms act as both a stage and a catalyst for conversations on gender diversity, both within Pakistan and transnationally. The Mascara Boys emerge as agents of change who navigate complex intersections of socio-cultural expectations to embody a form of hybrid masculinity that is both locally informed and globally resonant. Through their intentional acts, they not only disturb entrenched heteropatriarchal structures but also contribute to a richer, more complex understanding of masculinity. The study concludes that their emergence as practitioners of hybrid masculinity within the Pakistani context signals a significant paradigm shift, urging a re-evaluation of normative gender roles and paving the way for a more inclusive discourse on gender diversity in Pakistan.

Examining the association between men's gender equitable attitudes and contraceptive outcomes in rural Maharashtra, India

BackgroundPrevious literature suggests that men reporting more gender-equitable attitudes are more likely to use condoms, but there is a paucity of data evaluating whether these attitudes are associated with contraceptive communication and use. The objective of this study is to test the hypothesis that men reporting more gender-equitable attitudes will be more likely to (a) engage in contraceptive communication with their wives and (b) that they and/or their wives will be more likely to use all forms of family planning, compared to men with less equitable attitudes. MethodsUsing cross-sectional dyadic survey data from young married couples from rural Maharashtra, India (N = 989), we assessed the associations between men's gender role attitudes and a) spousal contraceptive communication and b) contraceptive use by type (none, traditional, condoms, pills, or IUD). The contraceptive use outcome is based on wives' report. We assessed these associations via bivariate t-test (communication outcome) or ANOVA test (contraceptive type outcome), as well as unadjusted and adjusted logistic (communication outcome) and multinomial logistic (contraceptive type outcome) regression models. Adjusted models included sociodemographic factors selected a priori based on established associations with gender-equitable attitudes and/or our assessed outcomes. FindingsMen with more gender-equitable attitudes were more likely to discuss family planning with their wives (AOR = 1·05, 95%CI 1·03-1·07, p < 0·001) and to use condoms (ARRR = 1·03, 95%CI 1·00-1·06, p = 0·07). There was no association between gender-equitable attitudes and use of other types of contraception. InterpretationWhile gender-equitable attitudes among men may facilitate condom use and family planning communication in marriage, they do not appear to be linked with greater likelihood of use of more effective types of contraceptive use. This suggests that males supportive of gender equity may take greater responsibility for family planning vis a vis a less effective contraceptive, condoms, in the absence of more effective short-acting contraceptives for men. FundingThe National Institutes of Health [Grant number 5R01HD084453-01A1] and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, WA [grant number INV-002967].

The path towards an HIV-free generation: engaging adolescent boys and young men (ABYM) in sub-Saharan Africa from lessons learned and future directions

ABSTRACT This paper highlights the pressing need to address the HIV epidemic among adolescent boys and young men (ABYM) in sub-Saharan Africa. Despite progress in HIV prevention, ABYM still experience low diagnosis rates, treatment adherence, and linkage to care. The paper emphasizes ABYM’s vulnerability due to societal norms, limited healthcare access, and economic pressures. It calls for gender-responsive interventions, including comprehensive sexual education, youth-friendly health services, community engagement, and targeted outreach. Comprehensive sexual education is pivotal in HIV prevention for ABYM, providing them with age-appropriate sexual health knowledge and safer sexual practices to reduce HIV incidence. Harmful masculine norms must be countered to promote respectful relationships, benefiting boys, men, and their partners. Inadequate access to youth-friendly health services hampers HIV prevention. Establishing spaces with confidential, non-judgmental care offering testing, counselling, circumcision, and provision of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is essential, especially considering ABYM’s unique clinic experiences. Engaging communities, leaders, educators, and peers combats stigma and discrimination. ABYM’s input in intervention design, targeted outreach, and innovative technology enhances effectiveness of HIV prevention programmes. Economic factors should also be addressed. Comprehensive multi-sectoral interventions, including conditional cash transfers, effective for AGYW, could benefit ABYM. Addressing structural factors alongside behaviour change and social support is key.

The Gender-Sensitive Depression Screening GSDS-26 - Polish adaptation and validation of the tool and links to gender stereotypes.

The study aimed to create a Polish version of the Gender-Sensitive Depression Screening (GSDS-26) by AM Möller-Leimkühler and to assess its validity and reliability. The tool measures the overall level of depression and the following factors: depressiveness, stress perception, aggressiveness, emotional control, alcohol consumption, and risky behavior. The relationships between depression measured by the GSDS 25 and the subjects' adjustment to stereotypical male roles were also checked. The study included 1,087 participants - 746 men and 341 women from a nonclinical group. In addition to the adapted method, the Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI), Gotland Male Depression Scale (GMDS) by Rutz and Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI-22) by Mahalik were used. The results of the exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the adopted six-factor structure. Cronbach's alpha coefficients were satisfactory and comparable to the original version, i.e., the overall score was α = 0.92, the score for five of the six subscales α was between 0.80 and 0.85, and for the alcohol consumption subscale α = 0.63. The GSDS-26 scores, as in the original, showed weak to moderate associations with the subjects' adjustment to stereotypical male roles. The GSDS-26 has satisfactory psychometric properties and is suitable for use in studies of levels of depression specific to men.

Metalinguistic discourses of ‘styling the other’

This article explores how mobility shapes language, gender and sexuality during periods of indeterminacy, focusing on the discursive construction of masculinities. Using styling/‘styling the other’ as an interpretive framework, the article analyses how economic precarity leads to ambivalence in the masculinities of Zimbabwean heterosexual-identifying male migrants (ages 26–30 years) in Johannesburg. Interview data suggests that these men engaged in male-to-male sex work to achieve economic security. To solicit wealthy white men, the men performed stereotypical Black hypermasculinity and sophisticated, cosmopolitan gay subjectivities through language crossing and physical styling. These performances ultimately aimed to achieve the normative masculine identity of being a husband and provider. The article elucidates the paradox in which the men appropriated Polari, a British gay patois, and foreign or white understandings of Black/African masculinity to style the ‘other’ while fulfilling traditional Zimbabwean notions of masculinity.

Real men don't talk? Relationships among depressiveness, loneliness, conformity to masculine norms, and male non-disclosure of mental distress

Men are a particularly challenging group when it comes to mental health communication. Non-disclosure of mental distress is quite common among men in general, and even more so among depressed men – despite its detrimental effects on health. Motivating men to share their mental distress with trusted social contacts serves as a vital first step in addressing and improving their mental health – both for those men who are affected by mental illness and those who are not. To overcome the barriers to communicating about mental distress, knowledge about the aspects associated with non-disclosure is indispensable. Bringing together assumptions from interpersonal communication and (mental) health communication literature, we propose a conceptual model of the relationships among depressiveness, loneliness, conformity to masculine norms, number of trusted social contacts, and non-disclosure of mental distress. To empirically test our model, we conducted a cross-sectional online survey with 1,400 men in Germany. Findings largely substantiate our model. They show that a higher depressiveness is positively associated with men's non-disclosure of mental distress – both directly and mediated through several other variables. Loneliness emerged as an important mediating factor, with a higher depressiveness being linked to higher loneliness, which increased the likelihood for men's non-disclosure. Depressiveness was also associated with a higher conformity to traditional masculine norms, again making non-disclosure of mental distress more probable.

The enduring echoes of juvenile bullying: the role of self-esteem and loneliness in the relationship between bullying and social media addiction across generations X, Y, Z.

Being bullied is a profoundly distressing experience for children and adolescents, with the potential for adverse mental and behavioral outcomes throughout their adult years. This study aims to explore the association between juvenile bullying, self-esteem, loneliness, and social media addiction among men across three generational cohorts: X, Y, and Z. The study utilized an online survey, administering structured questionnaires to 797 men aged 18-58 divided into three generational cohorts: 142 individuals from Gen X (born between 1965 and 1980), 275 from Gen Y (born between 1981 and 1996), and 380 from Gen Z (born between 1997 and 2005). The findings demonstrate that across all three generations, there was a positive correlation between experiencing bullying in one's youth and social media addiction in adulthood. Among Gen X, self-esteem did not act as a mediator in this relationship, nor did loneliness moderate the links between bullying and social media addiction, or between self-esteem and social media addiction. However, for Gen Y and Z, self-esteem was found to mediate the relationship between bullying and social media addiction. Loneliness moderated the association between self-esteem and social media addiction in Gen Y and the association between bullying and social media addiction in Gen Z. The differences observed among generational cohorts can be attributed to changes in masculinity norms, the evolution of bullying types, and the rapid development of social media platforms, catering to the distinct needs and gratifications of each generation.