Masculine Gender Role Research Articles

Cross-sectional study of gender role conflict examining college-aged and middle-aged men.

This study examined gender role conflict in college-aged and middle-aged men. Eighty-eight college-aged men and 89 middle-aged men completed 5 measures that assess gender role conflict and psychological well-being. Multivariate analysis of variance results indicated that, compared with college-aged men, middle-aged men were less conflicted about success, power, and competition, but were more conflicted between work and family responsibilities. Canonical analysis indicated two significant roots between (a) gender role conflict and psychological well-being and (b) age group, gender role conflict, and psychological wellbeing. The discussion focuses on implications for counseling, limitations, and future research. The construct of gender is a major organizing principle underlying roles in society and the nature of interpersonal relationships (Cook, 1990). A major body of literature examining masculine, feminine, and androgynous gender roles suggests that the masculine role has beneficial effects for those who enact the role. In the psychological sphere, the masculine role has been cited as fostering psychological well-being, assertiveness, self-esteem, and psychological health (Antill & Cunningham, 1979; Whitley, 1983, 1985). In contrast to this research, others have suggested that there are liabilities associated with the male gender role, which include increased risk-taking and self-destructive behaviors (Meth, 1990), increased stress (Stewart & Lykes, 1985),

A model of time-limited group therapy for men: Its use with recovering addicts

An array of men's issues from a newly emerging paradigm is reviewed—problems such as the dysfunctional development of masculine identity, “fatherlessness,” and gender role strain. The effects of social and psychological pressures on men are documented, and the need for gender-specific treatment is advocated. A brief evaluation of other group approaches to therapy for men is offered. An argument is made in favor of a more directive model of treating men in group for gender issues. The phases, components, and techniques of a new model of therapy for men are described in detail. The model focuses on the treatment of four primary emotions—grief, anger, fear, and shame—the socialization of which have caused great harm to men.

Masculine gender role stress in an inpatient sample of alcohol abusers.

Masculine gender role stress in an inpatient sample of alcohol abusers.

Feminine gender role behavior and academic achievement: Their relation in a community sample of middle childhood boys

Previous studies on the relationship between gender role behavior and academic achievement and/or cognitive abilities in boys have led to somewhat conflicting hypotheses. The present study extends these hypotheses to a broadly representative school-based sample of boys (ages 6–10 years) and asks whether feminine and/or masculine gender role behavior is associated with lower academic achievement in general as well as specifically in math, and whether these relationships increase with age. The parents of 333 boys (74% of the eligible sample) who attended one public school system in northern New Jersey agreed to participate. The survey included two psychometrically robust gender role behavior questionnaires as well as the Child Behavior Checklist, which contains a scale concerned with school achievement, all based on parental report. In addition, the results of the routinely school-administered California Achievement Tests were analyzed. The results only weakly and somewhat inconsistently supported the hypotheses. We conclude that variations of gender role behavior as seen in a school-based sample are only marginally correlated with school achievement. The correlation patterns vary with the aspect of gender role behavior—masculinity, femininity—under investigation and with age.

Masculine gender role stress in an inpatient sample of alcohol abusers.

Masculine gender role stress in an inpatient sample of alcohol abusers.

Effect of Instructor Gender and Gender Role on Student Willingness to Take a Psychology Course

Students read a set of three instructor descriptions representing feminine, masculine, and androgynous gender roles. After reading the descriptions, students rated their willingness to take a clinical and an experimental psychology course from the instructor. A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed a significant effect of instructor gender role. Students were less willing to take a course from the masculine instructor than from either the feminine or the androgynous instructor. A significant Instructor Gender Role X Type of Course interaction was also observed. Student and instructor gender did not affect willingness to take a psychology course.

Masculine gender role stress: Implications for the assessment of men

There has been increasing awareness of an association between masculine gender role and various physical and mental health disorders in men. Based on a psychosocial view of masculinity we have developed a cognitvely mediated notion of gender role stress (MGRS). This view rests on the assumption that rigid commitment to masculine schemata for the appraisal and coping with life's problems may both produce stress and result in dysfunctional coping patterns in men. The empirical development of a measure of MGRS is described, and five factors are identified that relate to psychophysiological measures of stress. The review then discusses how reliance on masculine schemata can lead to gender role stress and dysfunctional coping behaviors. These behaviors are presented as the inhibition of emotional expressiveness, reliance on aggression, power, and control, and obsession with achievement and success. The utility of the concept of masculine gender role stress in the assessment of men's health is discussed.

Gender stereotypes and dimensions of effective leader behavior

Research has consistently found that effective leadership is perceived as characterized by traits similar to those associated with masculine gender roles. These perceptions would appear to be at odds with extensive research indicating that effective leadership requires “consideration” and “structuring” behaviors—behaviors that seem to represent both masculine and feminine styles. In two separate studies, the correspondence between gender stereotypes and dimensions of effective leadership were assessed. Results indicate that consideration behaviors are perceived to be feminine, while structuring behaviors are perceived to be masculine. Similarly, qualities that characterize the masculine gender role are perceived to be consistent with structuring, while qualities associated with the feminine gender roles are perceived to be consistent with consideration. It is suggested that an increased awareness of the “androgynous” nature of effective leadership behaviors might weaken the biases in favor of male leaders.

The role of masculine gender role stress in expressivity and social support network factors

This study examined the relationship of masculine gender roles stress (MGRS) to nonverbal and verbal expressivity in positive and negative emotional dyadic role-play situations. The relationship between masculine gender role stress and emotion-focused social support was also explored. Male subjects were differentiated by their appraisals of gender-related situations as stressful; they were rated on nonverbal facial expression and global verbal expressivity in positive and negative emotional situations. It was demonstrated that (a) all subjects were less nonverbally and verbally expressive in situations requiring positive emotional expression than in situations requiring negative emotional expression; (b) high MGRS subjects were less nonverbally expressive than low MGRS participants in both types of situations; (c) however, the high MGRS subjects were less verbally expressive than the lows only under emotionally positive conditions; and (d) while high MGRS subjects did not have smaller social support networks than the lows, they reported less satisfaction with their social support systems. Results were discussed in terms of gender roles and stress-buffering implications.

Cardiovascular Reactivity to Stress in Men

Previous research has shown that excessive cardiovascular reactivity may be important in the development of coronary heart disease. The present study examined the role of masculine cognitive appraisal of stress as a mediator of cardiovascular reactivity in men. The reactivity of men who differed on a measure of individual differences in men's cognitive appraisal of masculine gender role stress (MGRS) were compared on the cold-pressor test under conditions of high and low masculine performance challenge. Under conditions of minimal challenge, it was predicted that high- and low-MGRS men would not differ on reactivity. Under high challenge, high-MGRS men were expected to show greater reactivity than were low-MGRS men. Analysis of results for systolic blood pressure confirmed the major predictions. High-MGRS men showed greater systolic blood pressure reactivity than did low-MGRS men under high but not low masculine challenge. The implications of MGRS appraisal for men's health are discussed.

Male role and gender role conflict: Relations to help seeking in men.

Tested theory that adherence to the traditional male gender role and help-seeking attitudes and behaviors are related. Ss were 401 undergraduate men who completed measures of help-seeking attitudes and behaviors, attitudes toward the stereotypic male role, and gender role conflict factors (i.e., success/power/competition, restrictive emotionality, and restrictive affectionate behavior between men). Canonical analysis and regression indicated that traditional attitudes about the male role, concern about expressing emotions, and concern about expressing affection toward other men were each significantly related to negative attitudes toward seeking professional psychological assistance. Restrictive emotionality also significantly predicted decreased past helpseeking behavior and decreased likelihood of future help seeking. The implications of these results for theory, research, and counseling practice are discussed. There appear to be distinct gender differences in psychological help seeking. Two-thirds of all clients seeking psychological help are female. Further, one in three women, compared with one in seven men, seek services from a mental health professional at some point during their lifetime (Collier, 1982). Whereas much research and theoretical writing has focused on the psychological and sociological reasons for women's use of counseling services, a much smaller amount of literature has focused on the problems associated with male reluctance to use psychological services. One possible source of men's hesitance to use counseling services is adherence to the traditional male gender role, although this hypothesis has received very little attention in the help-seeking literature. This lack of attention is somewhat surprising, given that adherence to a role characterized by instrumentality, strength, aggressiveness, and emotional inexpressiveness (David & Brannon, 1976; O'Neti, 1981) seems intuitively antithetical to the behavior of seeking help for psychological concerns. The little research that is available has reported that people with a masculine gender role orientation are less likely to express an interest in seeking counseling than individuals with a feminine gender role'Orientation

Sex and gender effects in evaluating emergent leaders in small groups

This study investigated the effects of sex and gender role characteristics on emergent leader effectiveness ratings in small task groups. Data were collected on two occasions from 122 subjects in 28 mixed-sex groups performing “sex-neutral” tasks for valued rewards over many weeks of interaction. Results showed that there were neither significant differences between effectiveness evaluations received by male and female leaders, nor among ratings received by leaders with masculine, feminine, or androgynous gender role orientations. However, individuals with androgynous gender role orientations gave significantly higher effectiveness evaluations than individuals with masculine or feminine gender role orientations.

Masculine gender-role stress: predictor of anger, anxiety, and health-risk behaviors.

We suggest that male gender-role identification affects whether specific situations are appraised as stressful. A questionnaire was developed to measure masculine gender-role stress (MGRS). Correlational data and multiple regression were used to validate the MGRS scale as a measure of gender-related stress in men, and compare its predictive utility with Spence's commonly-used measure of masculinity. Findings indicate that stress appraisal is gender related, that is, men experience more masculine-role stress than women. Further, the construct of MGRS was distinguished from the concept of masculinity. Finally, MGRS predicted increased anger, increased anxiety, and poorer health behaviors.

Air Force Academy Graduates and Nongraduates: Attitudes and Self-Concepts

A general finding of socialization research at U.S. military academies is that it reinforces relatively traditional attitudes and masculine gender role traits of young men. The relative effect of military academy training on the attitudes and orientations of young men and women graduates and nongraduates is assessed, using data from the U.S. Air Force Academy. Although both graduates and nongraduates become more egalitarian about changing gender roles, these changes are not as marked for graduates. Graduates are also more likely to retain more traditional family life-style expectations than those who leave the academy. Nongraduates are more likely to shift away from traditionally masculine and feminine identities than graduates, according to the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Interestingly, among female graduates, the largest number shifted to strictly feminine identities. These findings are discussed in the context of the socialization of women in male-dominated environments.

Masculine gender role stress. Scale development and component factors in the appraisal of stressful situations.

It is proposed that masculine gender role socialization affects whether men appraise specific situations as stressful. Behavioral research on stress and coping has remained relatively blind to the possibility of significant gender role differences in appraising events as stressful. Therefore, a new scale was developed to measure masculine gender role stress (MGRS). Data were presented to substantiate hypotheses that MGRS scores (1) significantly distinguish men from women, (2) are unrelated to global measures of sex-typed masculinity, and (3) are significantly associated with at least two measures of self-reported stress (i.e., anger and anxiety). Stressful situations represented on the MGRS scale include cognitive, behavioral, and environmental events associated with the male gender role. Factor analysis demonstrates that these concerns cluster in five particular domains reflecting physical inadequacy, emotional inexpressiveness, subordination to women, intellectual inferiority, and performance failures involving work and sex. The findings are discussed in terms of cognitive-behavioral concepts of stress and coping.

Media Images of Male and Female Professional Athletes: An Interpretive Analysis of Magazine Articles

An interpretive analysis of mass circulation magazine articles on leading male and female professional tennis players indicates that both groups are treated in terms of a “debunking motif” which reveals their imperfections and character flaws. The flaws identified among the women are closely associated with stereotypically feminine gender roles, while the flaws observed among the men are associated with stereotypically masculine gender roles. Thus, the articles reinforce the concept of professional sport as a male preserve, while suggesting an underlying traditionally feminine gender role for the female athletes. It is argued that this construction of the female athlete role derives from the commercial sponsorship of professional tennis.

An Overview of Men's Groups

Men's groups have existed for a variety of purposes, including consciousness-raising, support, education, counseling, and psychotherapy, for several years, but they have been described infrequently in the literature. This overview of men's groups presents a rationale for such groups in terms of changing perspectives on the masculine gender role. It also describes several applications for two specific types of men's groups, consciousness-raising and psychotherapy groups. The author discusses some of his own experiences as a leader in men's groups as well. The author states that the future of men's groups depends on an increased use of these groups and on more extensive reporting about them in the professional literature.

Investigating the Causes and Consequences of Marital Rape

Marital rape is a concept that many find difficult to comprehend. Until the Oregon trial of John Rideout, who was accused of rape by his wife Greta, there was little discussion of marital rape by the general public or by researchers and counselors skilled in dealing with other types of rape cases. However, the extensive media coverage given the Rideout case has raised a number of questions about this subject. For example, what actions should be defined as rape when the acts involve husband and wife? When women are forced to have sexual relations with their husbands, do they accept this as part of their marital duties or does the use of force have long-term negative consequences for the marriage? And finally, in what types of marriages does forced sex or marital rape occur? This paper attempts to answer some of these questions based upon interview data gathered from nearly 300 women.

The masculine gender role and its implications for the life expectancy of older men.

The lifespan of men is shorter than that of women. This study is an effort to identify some causal factors. Six dimensions of the masculine gender role examined in relation to certain stress-related disorders more prevalent among older men than among older women. These dimensions are "No Sissy Stuff"; "The Big Wheel"; "The Sturdy Oak"; "Give 'Em Hell"; homophobia; and sexual dysfunctioning. Specific problems of retirement are also discussed. Only in recent years have the roles of men been studied more closely. The results may offer positive implications for the lifespan of men.

MASCULINITY AND DELINQUENCY REVISITED*

When explaining differences in the delinquency of males and females, most writers have relied upon the common-sense assumption that males are more involved in delinquent behaviour than females because males are more masculine. At the heart of this argument is the belief that gender links sex and delinquency. The recent attention to a presumed increase in the criminality of women focuses on similar explanations. Hence, the rise in female delin quency is attributed to changing gender roles, specifically the masculinisation of women (Adler, 1975; Giordano, 1976). This study explores the ways in which gender may explain the differential delinquency involvement of adolescents by (1) developing a sociological measure of masculine gender role and (2) examining the relationship between that measure and the frequency of delinquency involvement. It is also suggested by some writers (Hoffman-Bustamente, 1973; Jensen and Eve, 1976; Weis, 1976) that certain other variables may affect the relationship between gender roles and delinquency. These variables are the availability of social support for delinquency and several kinds of ties to