Masai Mara National Reserve Research Articles

Mapping Kenyan Grassland Heights Across Large Spatial Scales with Combined Optical and Radar Satellite Imagery

Grassland monitoring can be challenging because it is time-consuming and expensive to measure grass condition at large spatial scales. Remote sensing offers a time- and cost-effective method for mapping and monitoring grassland condition at both large spatial extents and fine temporal resolutions. Combinations of remotely sensed optical and radar imagery are particularly promising because together they can measure differences in moisture, structure, and reflectance among land cover types. We combined multi-date radar (PALSAR-2 and Sentinel-1) and optical (Sentinel-2) imagery with field data and visual interpretation of aerial imagery to classify land cover in the Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya using machine learning (Random Forests). This study area comprises a diverse array of land cover types and changes over time due to seasonal changes in precipitation, seasonal movements of large herds of resident and migratory ungulates, fires, and livestock grazing. We classified twelve land cover types with user’s and producer’s accuracies ranging from 66%–100% and an overall accuracy of 86%. These methods were able to distinguish among short, medium, and tall grass cover at user’s accuracies of 83%, 82%, and 85%, respectively. By yielding a highly accurate, fine-resolution map that distinguishes among grasses of different heights, this work not only outlines a viable method for future grassland mapping efforts but also will help inform local management decisions and research in the Masai Mara National Reserve.

Patterns of helminth infection in Kenyan elephant populations

BackgroundThe dynamics of helminth infection in African elephant populations are poorly known. We examined the effects of age, sex, social structure and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) as primary drivers of infection patterns within and between elephant populations.MethodsCoprological methods were used to identify helminths and determine infection patterns in distinct elephant populations in Maasai Mara National Reserve, Tsavo East National Park, Amboseli National Park and Laikipia-Samburu Ecosystem. Gaussian finite mixture cluster analyses of egg dimensions were used to classify helminth eggs according to genera. Generalized linear models (GLM) and Chi-square analyses were used to test for variation in helminth infection patterns and to identify drivers in elephant populations.ResultsHelminth prevalence varied significantly between the studied populations. Nematode prevalence (96.3%) was over twice as high as that of trematodes (39.1%) in elephants. Trematode prevalence but not nematode prevalence varied between populations. Although we found no associations between helminth infection and elephant social groups (male vs family groups), the median helminth egg output (eggs per gram, epg) did vary between social groups: family groups had significantly higher median epg than solitary males or males in bachelor groups. Young males in mixed sex family groups had lower epg than females when controlling for population and age; these differences, however, were not statistically significant. The average NDVI over a three-month period varied between study locations. Cluster analyses based on egg measurements revealed the presence of Protofasciola sp., Brumptia sp., Murshidia sp., Quilonia sp. and Mammomonogamus sp. GLM analyses showed that the mean epg was positively influenced by a three-month cumulative mean NDVI and by social group; female social groups had higher epg than male groups. GLM analyses also revealed that epg varied between elephant populations: Samburu-Laikipia elephants had a higher and Tsavo elephants a lower epg than Amboseli elephants.ConclusionsElephants had infection patterns characterized by within- and between-population variation in prevalence and worm burden. Sociality and NDVI were the major drivers of epg but not of helminth prevalence. Gastrointestinal parasites can have a negative impact on the health of wild elephants, especially during resource scarcity. Thus, our results will be important when deciding intervention strategies.

Arboviruses and Blood Meal Sources in Zoophilic Mosquitoes at Human-Wildlife Interfaces in Kenya.

Background: Zoophilic mosquitoes play an important role in the transmission of arboviruses of medical importance at human-wildlife interfaces, yet arbovirus surveillance efforts have been focused mostly on anthropophilic mosquitoes. Understanding the diversity of zoophilic mosquitoes and their associated feeding patterns and arboviruses can inform better vector control strategies. Materials and Methods: We morphologically identified mosquitoes collected from two game reserves in Kenya, the Maasai Mara National Reserve (MMNR) and locations near the Shimba Hills National Reserve (SHNR). Representative mosquitoes were also identified by cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) barcode sequencing. In addition, we identified the vertebrate hosts of mosquito blood meals from the contents of each mosquito's abdomen by high-resolution melting (HRM) analysis and sequencing of COI, 16S ribosomal RNA, and cytochrome b gene PCR products. Similarly, mosquito arbovirus infections were identified by HRM analysis and sequencing of Alphavirus- and Flavivirus-specific RT-PCR products. Results: Of 2858 mosquitoes collected, 51 were engorged with blood meals from seven different vertebrate hosts, including humans, birds, domestic, and peridomestic animals and wildlife. Culex was the most abundant mosquito genus, with Culex pipiens being the most abundant species in both study regions. Among MMNR samples, we detected dengue serotype-2 virus (DENV-2) for the first time in Aedes tarsalis and Aedes tricholabis, as well as Sindbis virus in male Cx. pipiens. We also detected DENV-2 in Aedes aegypti sampled from locations near the SHNR. Human and diverse wildlife blood meals were identified, including bushbuck blood in the dengue-infected Ae. tarsalis and both human and hippopotamus blood in a single Eretmapodites chrysogaster mosquito. Conclusions: Our findings highlight the potential risk of sylvatic dengue and Sindbis transmission to humans by zoophilic mosquitoes at human-wildlife interfaces in Africa. Of specific importance, we provide evidence of sylvatic DENV-2 in Ae. tarsalis and Ae. tricholabis, representing potential new dengue vectors.

Seroprevalence of foot-and-mouth disease virus in cattle herds raised in Maasai Mara ecosystem in Kenya

A cross-sectional study was carried out to determine foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) seroprevalence and identify risk factors of exposure among cattle herds raised in three zones with different types of land use and progressively distant from the Maasai Mara National Reserve (MMNR) boundary. We selected five villages purposively; two in zone 1 (area < 20 km from the MMNR), another two in zone 2 (area between 20−40 km away from the MMNR) and one in zone 3 (area >40 km away from the MMNR). A total of 1170 cattle sera were collected from 390 herds in all the zones and tested for antibodies against the non-structural proteins (NSPs) of FMD virus (FMDV) using two 3ABC-based Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay ELISA kits. All sera samples were also screened for serotype-specific antibodies using Solid Phase Competitive ELISA (SPCE) kits (IZSLER, Italy). We targeted FMDV serotypes A, O, South African Territory [SAT] 1 and SAT 2, known to be endemic in East Africa including Kenya. Data on putative risk factors for FMD seropositivity in cattle were collected using a questionnaire. The overall apparent animal-level FMD seroprevalence based on the parallel comparison of the two anti-NSPs ELISA kits was 83.8 % (95 % CI; 81.8–85.9), and differed significantly across zones. Zone 1 had a higher seroprevalence than zones 2 and 3 (χ2 = 116.1, df = 2, p < 0.001). In decreasing order, the overall seroprevalences of FMDV serotypes A, SAT 2, O and SAT 1 were 26.3 % (95 % CI; 23.5–29.2), 21.4 % (95 % CI; 18.8–24.0), 21.2 % (95 % CI; 18.7–23.9) and 13.1 % (95 % CI; 11.1–15.3), respectively. The distribution of these serotypes differed significantly between zones (p < 0.05) except for SAT 2 serotype (χ2 = 0.90, df = 2, p = 0.639). Both serotypes A and O were more prevalent in zones 1 and 2 than zone 3 while serotype SAT 1, was higher in zone 3 compared to other zones. The results of multivariable analyses identified animal sex (i.e., female), raising of cattle in zones 1 and 2 (areas < 40 km away from the MMNR); mixing of cattle from multiple herds at watering points, and pastoral husbandry practices, as significant predictors of animal-level FMD seropositivity. This study established that FMD seroprevalence declined with distance from the MMNR.

English

Climate, fire and herbivory rank among the key factors and processes shaping savanna woodland community composition and diversity. We analyzed recruitment dynamics, community biomass, diversity, stability and composition and their relationships with rainfall fluctuations and herbivory in a savanna woodland community in the Masai Mara National Reserve of Kenya. Seedling and sapling recruitment varied differentially over time among the five commonest tree species. Rainfall exerted both positive and negative effects on recruitment dynamics, with saplings responding to longer rainfall lags than seedlings. The proportion of trees damaged by browsers peaked at intermediate rainfall levels and was higher for adults than seedlings or saplings. Community biomass, species richness and evenness increased with increasing rainfall. Biomass decreased, whereas richness and evenness hardly varied over time. Both rare and common species occurred in more diverse communities, prevalent at high rainfall locations, suggesting strong nestedness in community composition. Moreover, community stability and diversity appeared unrelated. Protection from browsers and lower per capita browsing pressure at high rainfall apparently enable rare species to successfully establish and elevate species diversity. If climate change makes droughts more frequent and intense and lowers soil moisture, browsing intensity could increase, reducing diversity and recruitment, especially of rare, stress-sensitive species. Key words: Masai Mara, species diversity, habitat filtering, rainfall, browsing, fire, competition, stochastic processes, tree biomass.

Early life social and ecological determinants of global DNA methylation in wild spotted hyenas.

Environmental factors early in life can have lasting influence on the development and phenotypes of animals, but the underlying molecular modifications remain poorly understood. We examined cross-sectional associations among early life socioecological factors and global DNA methylation in 293 wild spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) in the Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya, grouped according to three age classes (cub, subadult and adult). Explanatory variables of interest included annual maternal rank based on outcomes of dyadic agonistic interactions, litter size, wild ungulate prey density and anthropogenic disturbance in the year each hyena was born based on counts of illegal livestock in the Reserve. The dependent variable of interest was global DNA methylation, assessed via the LUminometric Methylation Assay, which provides a percentage methylation value calculated at CCGG sites across the genome. Among cubs, we observed approximately 2.75% higher CCGG methylation in offspring born to high- than low-ranking mothers. Among cubs and subadults, higher anthropogenic disturbance corresponded with greater %CCGG methylation. In both cubs and adults, we found an inverse association between prey density measured before a hyena was 3months old and %CCGG methylation. Our results suggest that maternal rank, anthropogenic disturbance and prey availability early in life are associated with later life global DNA methylation. Future studies are required to understand the extent to which these DNA methylation patterns relate to adult phenotypes and fitness outcomes.

Can hyena behaviour provide information on population trends of sympatric carnivores?

Mammalian carnivores are declining worldwide owing to human activities. Behavioural indicators have the potential to help identify population trends and inform conservation actions, although this area of research is understudied. We investigate whether behaviour is linked to abundance in a community of carnivores in the Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. Anthropogenic disturbance increased exponentially in parts of the Reserve between 1988 and 2017, mainly owing to daily incursions by large numbers of livestock and tourists. Previous research showed that hyena behaviour changed markedly during this period. Through a series of vignettes, we inquire whether hyena behaviours correlate with changes in abundance of hyenas themselves, or those of other carnivore species in the region. We find that changes in spotted hyena behaviour in disturbed areas, but not in undisturbed areas, can be linked to changes in their demography (vignette 1). We also find that declines in observed lion-hyena interactions, as well as increases in spotted hyena abundance, are probably caused by competitive release of hyenas from declining lion abundance (vignette 2). Finally, we demonstrate that in some cases, hyena behaviour and demography is linked to the density and distribution of sympatric carnivores, and that behavioural changes in hyenas can provide information on shifts within the carnivore community (vignettes 3 and 4). Our vignettes reveal intriguing relationships between behaviour and demography that should be explored in future research. Pairing behavioural studies with more traditional monitoring efforts can yield useful insights regarding population and community trends, and aid wildlife conservation and management. This article is part of the theme issue 'Linking behaviour to dynamics of populations and communities: application of novel approaches in behavioural ecology to conservation'.

“Fencing is our last stronghold before we lose it all.” A political ecology of fencing around the Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya

In the Maasai Mara National Reserve, a state-controlled protected area in Kenya, and in its surroundings, a particular concern in recent years has been the proliferation of fencing in what once was an open landscape. The fencing poses challenges to both wildlife and the traditional pastoralism practised by Maasai communities, which were dependent on the presence of open communal land. The purpose of the article is to identify the root causes of the enclosure of former common land and the increasing fencing of plots of land owned by individual Maasai. The study is based on empirical material from extended fieldwork conducted in two villages adjacent to the reserve and a review of relevant documents. The main finding is that the history of land division, the introduction of wildlife conservancies, and the materialization of an ageold discourse about the ‘end of pastoralism’, through the process of privatization and commercialization of land, have played major roles in pushing the Maasai to fence their land. The authors conclude that fencing can be seen both as an active form of resistance to dispossession in the name of conservation and as evidence of the acceptance of the discourse on the ‘end of traditional pastoralism’, which has been promoted by a range of state and nonstate actors since Kenya gained independence from colonial rule.

Long-term ecological changes influence herbivore diversity and abundance inside a protected area in the Mara-Serengeti ecosystem

Protected areas in sub-Saharan Africa are fast becoming islands on which to conserve biodiversity as surrounding human populations grow exponentially, rangelands become urbanized, and natural habitats are fragmented. The Masai Mara National Reserve in the Mara-Serengeti ecosystem in Kenya is renowned for having one of the highest densities and diversities of large mammals in the world, but may be experiencing negative effects from anthropogenic disturbances (e.g., illegal livestock grazing) within Reserve boundaries. We monitored changes in the diversity and abundance of resident and migratory herbivores in response to temperature, rainfall, the size of the local pastoralist population, the burgeoning infrastructure for tourism, and the number of livestock grazing inside Reserve boundaries in the eastern portion of the Masai Mara over a 26 year period (1988–2013). Using hierarchical models fit in a Bayesian framework, we found that overall diversity and abundance of resident and migrant herbivores declined between 1988 and 2013 in the Talek region, which lies in the northeastern portion of the Reserve. The habitual grazing of livestock within the Reserve's boundaries, as well as both human population growth and the development of tourism infrastructure beside the Reserve, had strong negative correlations with herbivore diversity and with the size of resident and migrant herbivore populations in the Talek region. We also found that rainfall was negatively correlated with the numbers and diversity of resident herbivores, and that temperature was positively correlated with numbers of resident herbivores. We expect herbivore diversity and abundance to continue to decline if current trends in livestock grazing and tourism development continue in the eastern Masai Mara.

Tourists’ willingness to pay for upstream restoration and conservation measures

Continuous wildlife loss worldwide and in the Masai Mara National Reserve in Kenya in particular motivated this study. Degradation of ecosystem services in the Mara basin is a cause of increasing pressure on the wildlife of the reserve. Wildlife tourists in the downstream area of the basin are beneficiaries of ecosystem services, particularly stream flow and water quality, provided in the upstream water catchment. This study aimed to estimate the willingness to pay (WTP) of wildlife tourists to cofinance conservation and restoration measures in the upstream of the Mara River Basin. The contingent valuation method was used with a valuation scenario framed in a payment for ecosystem services (PES) scheme. The relationship between WTP and several socio-economic variables was captured by an ordered logistic regression model. The mean WTP was estimated at US$41.6 (KES = 4314.8), with a potential annual revenue of over $US 3.5 million alone from tourists staying inside the reserve. This study contributes to clarifying the feasibility of a PES scheme in the Mara River Basin complementing former studies concerned with the willingness to accept conservation and restoration measures in the upstream of the basin. The study closes an important knowledge gap and paves the way for an institutional solution enabling PES implementation in the basin.

Multispecies hierarchical modeling reveals variable responses of African carnivores to management alternatives.

Carnivore communities face unprecedented threats from humans. Yet, management regimes have variable effects on carnivores, where species may persist or decline in response to direct or indirect changes to the ecosystem. Using a hierarchical multispecies modeling approach, we examined the effects of alternative management regimes (i.e., active vs. passive enforcement of regulations) on carnivore abundances and group sizes at both species and community levels in the Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. Alternative management regimes have created a dichotomy in ecosystem conditions within the Reserve, where active enforcement of regulations maintains low levels of human disturbance in the Mara Triangle and passive enforcement of regulations in the Talek region permits multiple forms of human disturbance. Our results demonstrate that these alternative management regimes have variable effects on 11 observed carnivore species. As predicted, some species, such as African lions and bat-eared foxes, have higher population densities in the Mara Triangle, where regulations are actively enforced. Yet, other species, including black-backed jackals and spotted hyenas, have higher population densities in the Talek region where enforcement is passive. Multiple underlying mechanisms, including behavioral plasticity and competitive release, are likely causing higher black-backed jackals and spotted hyena densities in the disturbed Talek region. Our multispecies modeling framework reveals that carnivores do not react to management regimes uniformly, shaping carnivore communities by differentially producing winning and losing species. Some carnivore species require active enforcement of regulations for effective conservation, while others more readily adapt (and in some instances thrive in response) to lax management enforcement and resulting anthropogenic disturbance. Yet, high levels of human disturbance appear to be negatively affecting the majority of carnivores, with potential consequences that may permeate throughout the rest of the ecosystem. Community approaches to monitoring carnivores should be adopted as single species monitoring may overlook important intra-community variability.

Evaluation of microclimates and assessment of thermal comfort of Panthera leo in the Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya.

Quantifying comfort levels of lions within the Masai Mara National Reserve in Kenya is the main focus of this study. Its discourse delineates step by step the process of quantifying comfort levels of lions within the Mara. Resource-efficient measures for humans in the built environment have long been developed through the creation of passive zones and modulated ventilation. In an analogous manner, new procedures are being adapted for creating optimized microclimates in natural game reserves. This involves CFD (computational fluid dynamics)-inspired landscaping. It is seen that the predicted mean vote (PMV) values-measures of thermal comfort-exceed the expected comfortable ranges suitable for normal functioning of lions in the reserve. This calls for a detailed exploration on sustainable development of this sanctuary. The paper illustrates how modern tools in computational fluid dynamics can be used along with standard ecological models to ascertain the optimal extent of airflow, levels of hydration, and land use pattern changes affecting the prevailing microclimate.

Expanding Staff Voice in Protected Area Management Effectiveness Assessments within Kenya's Maasai Mara National Reserve.

The concept of protected areas (PA) is one of the most widely used policy tools for biodiversity conservation including habitat and wildlife protection. Despite the importance and emphasis placed on protected area management, biodiversity is still in decline and more species are in danger of extinction. Some analyses have indicated that more than 40% of protected areas are poorly managed. To improve management effectiveness, the inclusion of diverse stakeholder information in articulating management strategies has been strongly encouraged; however, stakeholder involvement is often poorly integrated, and an opportunity granted only to select stakeholder groups, with PA staff, especially at lower organizational levels, minimally involved. Further, protected area management effectiveness (PAME) assessments are most frequently used as an aggregated outcome measure of effectiveness but these data should also inform management practice. Thus, for PA managers to obtain a greater understanding of issues impacting their effectiveness, they would benefit from including the voices of staff at all working levels. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to survey 135 wardens and rangers at all organizational levels from the two administrative sectors of Maasai Mara National Reserve to determine their perceptions of management effectiveness and to determine if significant differences existed across staff levels and administrative sectors. Significant differences were found to exist across staff levels and administrative authorities supporting the need for expanded staff voice in establishing effective PA management plans.

케냐 마사이마라 국립 보호구의 사파리 관광에서 드러나는 현대관광의 특성

The purpose of this study is to characterize safaris as modern nature tourism that are hidden behind the romantic discourse of nature and primitiveness. This study is based on insights derived from qualitative research methodologies including participant observation of safaris in the Masai Mara National Reserve in Kenya and in-depth interviews with tour agencies as producers and tourists as consumers. As a result, three characteristics were identified. First, by exploring how a safari is produced and operated by an agency, the characteristic of the modern tourism industry operating according to rationality was found. Secondly, by investigating the way the Masai Mara National Reserve and safaris are managed and controlled, this study shows that the Masai Mara grassland has become an object of management and consumption by humans as a place where safaris, a modern form of nature tourism, are played out. Lastly, by examining the way tourists experience safaris, the characteristics of today's tourists, who seek authentic experiences while favoring familiarity and comfort, are identified. This study is differentiated in the aspect that tourism research has focused on practical aspects through quantitative research methodologies. It is also meaningful that the subject and geographic scope of the research are expanded by studying African safaris, which have rarely been discussed in tourism research.

Knowledge Loss and Change Between 2002 and 2017—a Revisit of Plant Use of the Maasai of Sekenani Valley, Maasai Mara, Kenya

Traditional plant use is of tremendous importance in many societies, including most rural African communities. A variety of studies have shown knowledge dwindling due to changes towards a more Western lifestyle, and the influence of modern tourism. In the case of the Sekenani Maasai, we hypothesized in 2006 that, while little knowledge loss had been observed at that time, the change from a nomadic to a more sedentary lifestyle would lead to an accelerating loss of traditional plant knowledge. This paper examines the plant use of the Maasai in the Sekenani Valley, North of the Maasai Mara National Reserve 15 years after a first study. Based on the study of 2002 (Bussmann et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2: 22, 2006), semi-structured interviews were conducted with staff of Sekenani Camp in order to document current plant knowledge. The results of this follow-up study indicate dramatic knowledge loss over the last 15 years. Of 139 used species documented in 2002, only 84 remained in use in 2017. Off those species still in use, 30 had experienced a loss of uses, while for 18 species new uses were documented. The knowledge loss observed in Sekenani in 15 years is rather dramatic. Lifestyle changes and over-use of resources have clearly led to a rapid decline of traditional knowledge on plant use. This trend is expected to continue.

Exploring the Socio-economic Effects of the Community Tourism Fund to the Local Community, Maasai Mara National Reserve

This study evaluates the socio-economic effects of tourism development on the local community in Narok County, Kenya. It uses descriptive and inferential statistics, the county wants to utilize tourism as an economic development tool to reduce poverty and increase socio-economic wellbeing. Tourism has profound effects on the local community of the destination as it brings economic and socio-cultural changes. Some of the positive economic impacts include; increased direct and indirect employment, enhanced standard of living, more investments, infrastructural development, and new business linkages and opportunities. Some of the identified negative economic impacts include, increased income disparity, increased land price and rent, price hike of essential goods and services, seasonality effects and leakage of earnings. From the findings majority of the tourism assets and well-paid jobs are enjoyed by nonlocal whereas the local community does not benefit its rightful share due to uneven benefit distribution. Major positive socio-cultural impacts include: increased women participation and empowerment, increase in the level of education, enhanced social security and safety. Some negative socio-cultural impacts are grabbing of land from the poor, increased social gap, social disorder and loss of cultural originality. The local community is involved in tourism activities but are not fully involved in the decision making process. This study reveals that the local community is not fully involved in policy formulation process and most stake holders do not consider the socio-economic impacts of tourism development on the local community. Some recommendations are made for the Development of Tourism in Narok County to maximize positive impacts and minimize negative impacts.

Impact of Tourism of Off Road Driving on Vegetation Biomass, a Case Study of Masai Mara National Reserve, Narok, Kenya

Impact of Tourism of Off Road Driving on Vegetation Biomass, a Case Study of Masai Mara National Reserve, Narok, Kenya

Anthropogenic disturbance induces opposing population trends in spotted hyenas and African lions

Large carnivore populations are declining worldwide due to direct and indirect conflicts with humans. Protected areas are critical for conserving large carnivores, but increasing human-wildlife conflict, tourism, and human population growth near these sanctuaries may have negative effects on the carnivores within sanctuary borders. Our goals were to investigate how anthropogenic disturbance along the edge of the Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya, influences the demography and space-use of two large carnivore species that engage in intense interspecific competition. Here we document, in one disturbed region of the Reserve, a rapid increase in the population size of one large predator, the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), but a striking concurrent decline in numbers of another, the African lion (Panthera leo). Anthropogenic disturbances negatively affected lion populations, and decreasing lion numbers appear to have a positive effect on hyena populations, indicated here by an increase in juvenile survivorship. We also saw an increase in the number of livestock consumed by hyenas. Our results suggest human population growth and indirect effects of human activity along Reserve boundaries may be effecting a trophic cascade inside the Reserve itself. These results indicate both top-down and bottom-up processes are causing a shift in the carnivore community, and a major disruption of guild structure, inside the boundaries of one of the most spectacular protected areas in Africa.

An assessment of tree availability as a possible cause of population declines in scavenging raptors

Lack of suitable nesting trees is an increasingly common issue for avian conservation given rampant habitat and tree destruction around the world. In the African savannah, habitat loss and particularly tree damage caused by elephants have been suggested as possible factors in the decline of large bird species. Given the recent declines of vultures and other scavenging raptors, it is critical to understand if nest availability is a limiting factor for these threatened populations. Loss of woodland, partially due to elephant populations, has been reported for the Mara‐Serengeti ecosystem. Data on characteristics of trees used for nesting were collected for white‐backed, lappet‐faced, white‐headed vulture, and tawny eagle nests in Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. Nest tree characteristics were compared with the distribution of a random subsample of trees to assess nest preferences and determine suitability of available trees. Nearest neighbor distances were estimated as well as availability of preferred nesting trees to determine if tree availability is a limiting factor for tree‐nesting vultures. Tree availability was found to greatly exceed nesting needs for African vultures and tawny eagles. We thus conclude that on a landscape scale, tree availability is not a limiting factor for any of the species considered here (white‐backed, lappet‐faced, white‐headed vultures and tawny eagles).

Molecular survey of Coxiella burnetii in wildlife and ticks at wildlife-livestock interfaces in Kenya.

Coxiella burnetii is the causative agent of Q fever, a zoonotic disease of public health importance. The role of wildlife and their ticks in the epidemiology of C. burnetii in Kenya is unknown. This study analysed the occurrence and prevalence of the pathogen in wildlife and their ticks at two unique wildlife-livestock interfaces of Laikipia and Maasai Mara National Reserve (MMNR) with the aim to determine the potential risk of transmission to livestock and humans. Blood from 79 and 73 animals in Laikipia and MMNR, respectively, and 756 and 95 ixodid ticks in each of the areas, respectively, was analysed. Ticks were pooled before analyses into 137 and 29 samples in Laikipia and MMNR, respectively, of one to eight non-engorged ticks according to species and animal host. Real-time PCR amplifying the repetitive insertion element IS1111a of the transposase gene was used to detect C. burnetii DNA. Although none of the animals and ticks from MMNR tested positive, ticks from Laikipia had an overall pooled prevalence of 2.92% resulting in a maximum-likelihood estimate of prevalence of 0.54%, 95% CI 0.17-1.24. Ticks positive for C. burnetii DNA belonged to the genus Rhipicephalus at a pooled prevalence of 2.96% (maximum-likelihood estimate of prevalence of 0.54%, 95% CI 0.17-1.26). These ticks were Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, R. pulchellus and R. evertsi at pooled prevalence of 3.77, 3.03 and 2.04%, respectively. The presence of C. burnetii in ticks suggests circulation of the pathogen in Laikipia and demonstrates they may play a potential role in the epidemiology of Q fever in this ecosystem. The findings warrant further studies to understand the presence of C. burnetii in domestic animals and their ticks within both study areas.