Marula Oil Research Articles

Marula oil nanoemulsion improves motor function in experimental parkinsonism via mitigation of inflammation and oxidative stress.

Introduction: Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurologic condition exhibiting motor dysfunction that affects old people. Marula oil (M-Oil) has been used longley in cosmetics and curing skin disorders. M-Oil is particularly stable due to its high concentration of monounsaturated fatty acids and natural antioxidants. The current study formulated M-Oil in an o/w nanoemulsion (M-NE) preparations and tested its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant actions against experimental parkinsonism. Methods: Four experimental groups of male albino mice were used and assigned as vehicle, PD, PD + M-Oil and PD + M-NE. Locomotor function was evaluated using the open field test and the cylinder test. Striatal samples were used to measure inflammatory and oxidative stress markers. Results: The results indicated poor motor performance of the mice in PD control group then, improvements were recorded after treatment with crude M-Oil or M-NE. In addition, we found high expression and protein of inflammatory markers and malondialdehyde levels in PD group which were downregulated by using doses of crude M-Oil or M-NE. Hence, formulating M-Oil in form of M-NE enhanced its physical characters. Discussion: This finding was supported by enhanced biological activity of M-NE as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant agent that resulted in downregulation of the inflammatory burden and alleviation of locomotor dysfunction in experimental PD in mice.

Bleaching of crude marula oil using activated bentonite and activated marula shells: A comparative analysis

Refining of edible and cosmetic oil consists of various steps which include bleaching process. Bleaching is an important step as it removes colour pigments resulting in improvement of taste of oil and appearance. In this work, activated bentonite and activated marula shells were used to refine crude marula oil. Fresh bentonite was activated using H2SO4 whilst marula shells were activated using both H2SO4 and KOH. Vacuum bleaching of crude marula oil was performed using both the activated bentonite and activated marula shells. Fresh, activated, spent bentonites and marula shells were analysed using X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), X-ray Florescence (XRF), Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) for phase identification, elemental composition of crystalline material, functional groups present and thermal decomposition of the materials. Analysis of β-carotene and chlorophyll was done using UV–visible spectrophotometer on bleached and crude marula oils. Acid values (AV) and free fatty acids (FFA) values in the oil were calculated using standard procedures. The effects of acid activation parameters were investigated namely, acid concentration and activation time. Acid and alkali activation improved the adsorption properties of fresh bentonite and fresh marula to remove colour pigments. Increase in acid concentration and activation time resulted in increase in bleaching capacity of adsorbent. Optimum acid concentrations for activation were 2 N and 15 N for bentonite and marula shells respectively and optimum activation times were 7 and 1.5 h for bentonite and marula shells respectively. The study indicated that activated bentonite and activated marula shells are effective and were successful in improving the appearance of crude marula oil to the required quality standards. Marula shells are a by-product waste in cosmetic oil processing and its use assists in waste utilization in-line with circular economy principles.

Assessing the dielectric performance of Sclerocarya birrea (Marula oil) and mineral oil for eco-friendly power transformer applications

The ever increasing power demand has forced the power sector companies to increase their generation, transmission and distribution in turn increasing the number of power transformers in the system where necessary. Depending on the nature of operations, the transformers are chosen as either dry-type or liquid-cooled and the preference is mostly liquid cooled. Naphthenic oils have been the primary choice over the years and alternative solutions in the form of natural esters are researched extensively due to the environmental effects of Mineral Oil (MO). One such ester, Marula is presented in this research. The experiment places its focus on measurement of electrical, physical, chemical and thermal characteristics as per the standards of ASTM and IEC. The results prove the superior dielectric performance of MAO over MO. The antioxidant rich MAO exhibits superior dielectric properties and restores faster than MO after the instances of breakdown phenomena. The antioxidants show stability at both the low and high temperatures, and temperature causes minimum damage to antioxidants. In addition to that the use of such dielectric coolant minimizes the winding damage inside the transformer tank. Thus, it can be said that MAO is an excellent coolant and improves the efficiency of the transformer without the requirements of additional cooling devices.

Investigation of Survival/Hazard Rate of Natural Ester Treated with Al2O3 Nanoparticle for Power Transformer Liquid Dielectric

Increasing usage of petroleum-based insulating oils in electrical apparatus has led to increase in pollution and, at the same time, the oils adversely affect the life of electrical apparatus. This increases the demand of Mineral Oil (MO), which is on the verge of extinction and leads to conducting tests on natural esters. This work discusses dielectric endurance of Marula Oil (MRO), a natural ester modified using Conductive Nano Particle (CNP) to replace petroleum-based dielectric oils for power transformer applications. The Al2O3 is a CNP that has a melting point of 2072 °C and a low charge relaxation time that allows time to quench free electrons during electrical discharge. Al2O3 is blended with the MRO and Mineral Oil (MO) in different concentrations. The measured dielectric properties are transformed into mathematical equations using the Lagrange interpolation polynomial functions and compared with the predicted values either using Gaussian or Fourier distribution functions. Addition of Al2O3 indicates that 0.75 g/L in MRO has an 80% survival rate and 20% hazard rate compared to MO which has 50% survival rate and 50% hazard rate. Considering the measured or interpolated values and the predicted values, they are used to identify the MRO and MO’s optimum concentration produces better results. The test result confirms the enhancement of the breakdown voltage up to 64%, kinematic viscosity is lowered by up to 40% at 110 °C, and flash/fire points of MRO after Al2O3 treatment enhanced to 14% and 23%. Hence the endurance of Al2O3 in MRO proves to be effective against electrical, physical and thermal stress.

Antibacterial Activity of Marula [Sclerocarya Birrea] and Brominated Marula Seed Oil

Over the last decade, the use of hand sanitizers has increased substantially. Recently, with this outbreak of COVID 19 virus, all natural hand sanitizers have taken the spotlight for their simplicity, powerful cleaning abilities, natural moisturizing formulas and the ability to never leave the skin feeling dry. Marula [Sclerocarya birrea] seed oil was soxhlet extracted with n-hexane and then brominated. The oil quality parameters of marula oil (MO) and brominated Marula oil (BMO) were found to be; for MO: oil content (58.5 ± 0.435 %), moisture content (4.3 ± 0.158 %), saponification value (180 ± 0.7150 mgKOH/g ), peroxide value (10.52 ± 0.006 meq/kg), acid value (3.48 ±0.002) meq/kg ), FFA (1.73 ± 0.000 % as oleic),iodine value (61.02 ± 0.477 gI2/100g ). For brominated marula oil (BMO) ; saponification value ( 168.7 ± 0.930 mgKOH/g ), iodine value ( 8.6 ± 0.490 gI2/100g ), peroxide value (10.63 ± 0.505 meq/kg ), acid value ( 3.42 ± 0.000 meq/kg ), FFA (1.61 ± 0.000 % as oleic). Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used to confirm the bromination process. The following peaks of absorptions were observed for BMO: C–Br at 600 cm-1 , C–H stretch, (2950 to 2850 cm-1 for alkane), 1750cm-1 for carbonyl stretch, 1450 cm-1 for ester, 1680 cm-1 for alkene. The BMO showed a broad spectrum activity against E. coli, Salmonella sp, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus epidermidis microorganism which gave the inhibitions zones of 19.50 mm, 20.50 mm, 19.00 mm, 18.60 mm respectively. DMSO was used as the negative control while streptomycin as the positive control at 400 mg/ml concentration. Based on these findings, BMO may be use as disinfecting oils or hand sanitizers and will discourage its use as food additive.

Mechanical Properties of Heat-treated Medium Carbon Steel in Renewable and Biodegradable Oil

Abstract The heat treatment of steels under controlled conditions alters their physical and mechanical properties, enabling them to meet the desired engineering applications. In this study, the suitability of a Namibian local oil (marula oil) as an alternative quenchant to SAE40 engine oil (Standard quenchant – a synthetic oil derived from natural or crude oil) for industrial heat treatment of medium carbon steels was investigated. SAE40 engine oil served as the control. The mechanical properties (tensile strength, yield strength, percentage elongation and hardness) of the treated and untreated samples were investigated at the temperatures of 850oC, 900oC, 950oC and 1000oC. The untreated sample had the highest amount of elongation (40%), while the sample quenched in marula oil had the highest hardness (24.33HRD) and tensile strength (530.32 N/mm2) values compared with both the untreated and the SAE40 engine oil quenched samples. Hence, marula oil showed high potential as an alternative quenchant to petroleum based SAE40 engine oil for quenching medium carbon steels, without cracking or distortion.

Anti-aging potential of extracts from Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst and its chemical profiling by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS

BackgroundDegradation of components of the extracellular matrix such as elastin and collagen by elastase and collagenase accelerates skin aging. Phytochemicals that inhibit the activity of these enzymes can be developed as anti-aging ingredients. In this study, an investigation of the anti-aging properties of Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst (Marula) extracts was conducted in vitro with the aim of developing chemically characterized anti-aging ingredients.MethodsMarula stems, leaves and fruits were extracted using methanol:dichloromethane (DCM) (1:1). The stems were later extracted using acetone, ethanol, methanol:DCM (1:1) and sequentially using hexane, DCM, ethyl acetate and methanol. The stem ethanol extract was defatted and concentrated. Elastase and collagenase inhibition activities of these extracts and Marula oil were determined using spectrophotometric methods. The chemical profile of the ethanolic stem extract was developed using Ultra-performance-liquid chromatography quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS) with MassLynx software. Pure standards were used to confirm the identity of major compounds and were screened for anti-elastase and anti-collagenase activity.ResultsMarula stems extracts were the most active as they exhibited anti-elastase activity comparable to that of elafin (> 88%) and anti-collagenase activity as potent as EDTA (> 76%). The leaf extract had moderate anti-elastase activity (54%) but was inactive agains collagenase. Marula fruits and oil exhibited limited activity in both assays. The ethanolic extract of Marula stems was the most suitable based on its acceptability to the cosmetic industry and its anti-collagenase activity (99%). Defatting and concentration improved its antiaging activity and lowered the colour intensity. Six compounds have been tentatively identified in the chemical profile of the ethanolic extract of Marula stems of which four; quinic acid, catechin, epigallocatechin gallate and epicatechin gallate have been confirmed using pure standards. Epigallocatechin gallate and epicatechin gallate were as potent (p < 0.05) as EDTA at 5 μg/ml in the anti-collagenase assay.ConclusionsThe ethanolic extract of Marula stems can be developed into an anti-aging ingredient as it exhibited very good in vitro anti-aging activity and its chemical profile has been developed. Epicatechin gallate and epigallocatechin gallate contribute to the anti-aging activity of Marula stem ethanol extract.

Performance Characteristics of Green Diesel from Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) Oil in Diesel Engine

Performance Characteristics of Green Diesel from Marula (<i>Sclerocarya birrea</i>) Oil in Diesel Engine

Safety and efficacy of Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst (Marula) oil: A clinical perspective

Ethnopharmacological relevanceSclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst (Marula) nut oil is a popular ingredient in cosmetics such as skin lotions, lipsticks and foundations. The demand for this African oil increased tremendously such that in 2008 almost US$ 20 million was spent on Marula oil for cosmetic product manufacturing. The ethnobotanical literature states that the Zulu people in South Africa amongst others applied the oil to maintain a healthy skin. Scientific studies to support the traditional use as well as the inclusion of Marula oil in cosmetic products is lacking. This study evaluated the irritancy potential (safety), the moisturising and hydrating effects as well occlusivity properties (efficacy) of Marula oil after topical application. In addition, the Marula oil used in this study was comprehensively characterised using two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Methods and materialsQuantification of the fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) was done using a LECO Pegasus 4D GC×GC–MS. To determine the safety and efficacy of Marula oil healthy caucasian adult female volunteers (n=20) who complied with the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the irritancy patch, moisture efficacy, hydrating and occlusivity tests were recruited for each study. A 2× magnifying lamp (visual observation), Chromameter®, Aquaflux® and Corneometer® instruments were used to evaluate and monitor the irritancy level, skin barrier function, transepidermal water loss, hydrating and occlusive effects of topically applied Marula oil. ResultsThe GC×GC–MS analysis identified several saturated as well as unsaturated fatty acids. Oleic acid was the major fatty acid constituting 69.0% of the oil followed by palmitic acid (15.3%), linoleic acid (9.2%), palmitoleic acid (4.1%) and stearic acid (1.5%). The clinical study revealed that Marula oil is non-irritant (p<0.001), with moisturising and hydrating properties (p<0.001) when applied to a lipid-dry (xerosis) skin. Additionally the oil exhibited occlusive effects (p<0.001) when applied to normal skin. These findings may be linked to the absorption of the oil into the skin due to the high percentage of oleic acid and the presence of palmitic acid which are known to disturb the stratum corneum intercellular lipids. These fatty acids present in Marula oil are very similar to those present in the epidermis, and can be considered biomimetic. ConclusionsMarula oil rich in fatty acids exhibits moisturising, hydrating and occlusive properties. As the oil is non-irritating and provides a moisturising effect with moderate prevention of transepidermal water loss, average moisture retention properties and noteworthy occlusive effects, its inclusion in cosmetic products based on its traditional use may be justified depending on the application.

The use of impregnated perlite as a heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production from marula oil

AbstractIn this study, biodiesel was produced from marula (Sclerocarya birrea) oil using impregnated perlite with potassium hydroxide (KOH) as a heterogeneous catalyst. The effect of experimental variables such as temperature (°C), reaction time (h), methanol to oil ratio (mass %), and catalyst to oil ratio (mass %) on the transesterification process were investigated. Using a central composite design (CCD), a mathematical model was developed to correlate the experimental variables with the percentage yield of biodiesel. The model showed that optimum conditions for biodiesel production were as follows: catalyst to oil ratio of 4.7 mass %, temperature of 70.4°C, methanol to oil ratio of 29.9 mass %, and reaction time of 3.6 h. The yield of 91.4 mass % of biodiesel was obtained. It was also possible to recycle and reuse the modified perlite up to three times without any significant change in its catalytic activity. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) and the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area showed no modifications in the perlite structure. The results show that the important fuel properties of marula biodiesel meet the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) biodiesel standard properties.

Investigation of Sclerocarya birrea seed oil extracted as a bioenergy resource for compression ignition engines

Sclerocarya birrea (Marula) seed oil was extracted and characterized for its physico-chemical properties and fatty acid compositions, respectively, by using standardized laboratory methods of the Association of Official and Analytical Chemist (AOAC). The fuel and lubrication properties of marula oil were also determined by using the ASTM methods, and the oil was evaluated in terms of its antiwear, viscometrics, volatility, stability, environmental compatibility properties and energy content. It was found that the high percentage of mono-unsaturated oleic acid (73.6%) provided the oiliness that makes marula oil a natural alternative to genetically modify high oleic acid sunflower oil used in biodiesel production. The aggregate properties of seed oiliness as exemplified by the high oleic acid content, high saponification value (178.6 mg/KOH) and viscosity (41 mm2/s) makes marula oil to be prospective based oil for engine crank case biolubricants with antiwear and friction reduction properties. However, the higher oil viscosity exhibited by marula seed oil in comparison to diesel could pose some durability problems to compression ignition engines, when used directly as fuel. Nonetheless, the reduction of oil viscosity would be required by heating, blending with diesel fuel, or by transesterification to forestall the risk of engine failure resulting from the use of unmodified marula oil. The flash point of marula oil (235

Marula Oil and Petrodiesel: A Comparative Performance Analysis on a Variable Compression Ignition Engine

The quest for biofuel production and use in Botswana is driven by factors including volatile oil prices, need for fuel security, potential for job creation, potential reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, and economic diversification. In line with national efforts to come up with energy sources that are both environmentally friendly and sustainable, this work was carried out to compare performance properties of native crude marula (Sclerocarya birrea) seed oil and petrodiesel fuel on a variable compression engine test rig with automatic data acquisition set up. Parameters such as engine torque, brake power and specific fuel consumption were measured at different loads for the two fuels. The results indicate that engine performance when powered with crude marula oil compares favourable with those for petrodiesel. Optimum numerical values for engine torque, brake power and specific fuel consumption were 28.2 Nm, 6.27 W and 0.34 g/kWh respectively for petrodiesel, and 22.7 Nm, 6.6 W, 0.33 g/kWh respectively for crude marula oil. The engine performance was also analysed for same parameters, namely, engine torque, brake power and specific fuel consumption when powered using the same fuels over a range of compression ratios while the load was fixed at 80%. Optimum numerical values for engine torque, brake power and specific fuel consumption were 27.2 Nm, 3.67 W and 0.59 g/kWh respectively for petrodiesel, and 26.3 Nm, 3.6 W, 0.34 g/kWh respectively for crude marula oil. The results indicate that compression ratio of 16:1 yields optimum engine performance in terms of engine torque and brake power for both fuels under review. However, marula oil fuel recorded smooth steady increase in performance profile across all compression ratios which out-performs petrodiesel on lower compression ratios for engine torque and brake power, and is largely better than petrodiesel on fuel consumption.

Chemical Extraction and Property Analyses of Marula Nut Oil for Biodiesel Production

To identify and develop alternative and renewable sources of fuel for the transport sector is a present chal- lenge for engineers and researchers. This work was carried out to assess yield of marula (Sclero carrya/birrea) nut and chemical properties of crude marula nut oil for biodiesel production in Botswana. Chemical extrac- tion of marula oil was done to establish actual oil content by use of hexane/iso-propyl alcohol solvent in a soxhlet set up. Distillation was carried out on a Rotavapor system prior to oil purging using nitrogen gas. The results indicated that marula nuts have about 58.6% oil content. Characterisation of the extracted crude oil was carried out to determine its chemical composition using the Waters GCT Premier Time of Flight (TOF) Mass Spectrometer (MS) coupled to the Agilent 6890 N Gas Chromatography (GC) system. Ethyl oleate (ethyl ester) was found to be the dominant fatty acid. Trans-Oleic acid was also abundant but could not be quantified because it was not found in the standard mixture. Crude marula oil was also found to have an ester content of 93.7%, acid value of 1.4 mg KOH/g, and free fatty acid content of 0.7%. These results are mar- ginally out of specifications for biodiesel by international standards, implying that crude marula oil is a po- tential substrate for biodiesel production.

Effect of Stripping Methods on the Oxidative Stability of Three Unconventional Oils

AbstractStripped and non‐stripped oils from Sclerocarya birrea [marula oil (SCO)], Aspongopus viduatus [melon bug oil (MBO)] and Agonoscelis pubescens [sorghum bug oil (SBO)], traditionally used for nutritional applications in Sudan, were investigated for their fatty acid and tocopherol composition, and their oxidative stability. Three stripping methods were used, phenolic compounds extraction, silicic acid column, and aluminum oxide column. The stripping methods did not affect the fatty acid composition. Non‐stripped SCO, MBO and SBO contained oleic, palmitic, stearic and linoleic acids, which were not significantly (P &lt; 0.05) different than stripped SCO, MBO and SBO. The stripping methods’ effect on the tocopherol composition of the studied oils, the total amount of tocopherol in non‐stripped oils decreased by extraction of phenolic compounds, mean that part of the tocopherols was extracted with the phenolic compounds. No traces of tocopherols were found in oils stripped using silicic and aluminum columns and the tocopherols were eliminated during the stripping processes. The stability of SCO, MBO and SBO oils was 43, 38 and 5.1 h, respectively, this stability decreased by 22.0, 37.6 and 23.5%, respectively after extraction of phenolic compounds. This stability decreased by 96.9, 98.2 and 90.2% respectively, when stripped using the aluminium column and decreased by 92.6, 96.1 and 86.3% when stripped by the silicic column. It is possible to assume that the tocopherols and phenolic compounds play a more active role in the oxidative stability of the oils than the fatty acid composition and phytosterols.

The quest for rural enterprise support strategies that work—the case of Mineworkers' Development Agency

During the 1990s, 300 000 jobs were lost in South Africa'smining industry. Mineworkers'Development Agency was set up to create jobs through small enterprise in the rural areas from where the mineworkers originated: areas which are now largely without a culture of production. This article describes why MDA moved from supporting co-operatives to individual enterprises. The support encompasses cost-covering business supply centres, as well as product development, marketing, training and counselling, which are covered by user fees and subsidies. MDA aimed to diversify the local supply market by offering training in a wide range of skills; however, only a narrow range of training was taken up, and impact assessments showed that the returns to the enterprises started were very low. MDA then attempted to help businesses reach new, higher-value markets, and is currently developing the production and marketing or marula oil. The role of the agency, and the need to hand over marketing to local private traders is discussed.

Characterization of Marula (&lt;i&gt;Sclerocarya caffra&lt;/i&gt;) Kernel Oil and Assessment of its potential use in Zimbabwe

To investigate the potential use of marula (Sclerocarya caffra) oil, dried marula seeds were crushed to release the kernels and oil was extracted using Soxhlet apparatus and the characteristics of oil determined. The average oil content was found to be 55.9 %. The saponification value of the oil was in the range 180- 189mgKOH/g oil whilst the iodine value was in the range 66- 70 and the average acid value was 3.6 %. The fatty acid profile of the marula oil was determined using Gas Liquid Chromatography. Oleic acid was found to be the predominant fatty acid. The oil was also low in saturates. It is apparent from the determined characteristics that marula oil has potential use in salad and cooking oils. The Journal of Food Technology in Africa Volume 5 Number 4 (October - December 2000), pp. 126-128